Unit – 1: Introduction to Research Project
Concept of Research and Research Methodology – Meaning, Characteristics and objectives
Research is an art of scientific
investigation. Research covers the search for and retrieval of information for
a specific purpose. Research has many categories, from medical research to
literary research. Basically research is a search for truth with the help of
some study, observation, comparison and experiments. It is search for knowledge
with the help of objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem.
Research in common man’s language refers to
“search for knowledge”. Research is simply the process of finding solution to a
problem after a complete study and analysis of situational factors. Research is
purposeful investigation. It provides a structure for decision making. It
provides an analytical framework for the subject matter of investigation. It
establishes the relationship between different variables, especially the
relationship of the dependent variable with the valuable independent variables.
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research.
Definition of Research: According
to P.M. Cook, “Research
is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
for implications with reference to given problem. It is the process of arriving
at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The best search is that which
is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so that it provides information in which
we have confidence.”
Meaning
of Research Methodology: Research
methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study
the various steps
that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the
researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how
to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or
chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but
they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
Researchers also
need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and
they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain
techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to
design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from
problem to problem.
Research
is required because of the following reasons:
Ø To
identify and find solutions to the problems.
Ø To help
making decisions.
Ø To develop
new concepts.
Ø To find
alternative strategies.
1) To identify and find solutions to the
problems: Research is required to understand the problems in depth. For
example:
Ø Why is
that demand for a product is falling?
Ø Why is
there a business fluctuation once in three years?
By
identify the problem as above; it is easy to collect the relevant date to solve
the problem.
2) To help making decisions: Research
is helpful for making the decision. For example: Should we maintain the
advertising budget same as last year? Research will answer this question.
3) To find alternative strategies: Research
is helpful to find alternative strategies. For examples: Should we follow pull
strategy or push strategy to promote the product.
4) To develop new concepts.
Characteristics
of Research: The characteristics of research are as follows:
1. Systematic Approach: Each step
must on your investigation be so planned that it lead to the next step.
2. Objectivity: It implies that true research should
attempt to find an unbiased answer to the decision making problem. Its means
true research have a pre-planned objective.
3. Relevancy: A research should be relevant
according to objective and according to information required for that. It
furnishes three important tasks:
a) It avoids
the collection of irrelevant data or information and saves money and time.
b) It
compares the information to be collected with researcher’s criteria for action.
c) It enables
to see whether to research is proceeding in right direction.
Essentials of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of
research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet
on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects
scientific research
to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research
should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used
should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the
research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report
with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be
sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should
be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined
to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research
is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation
in research and is a person of integrity.
Objectives of Research
All researchers aim at finding answer to
questions by applying certain scientific procedures. Research investigates the
truth, which is hidden and tries to find solution to existing problem which
have not been discovered yet. Different research studies have different
purposes depending on nature and type of research. Generally, we have following
categories of objectives of research:
1) To investigates a Subject: Research
is undertaken in a specific field of knowledge. It may be pure science or
social science; one may be interested in verifying a fact or principle in any
discipline of his choice like physics, chemistry, botany, commerce or
economics. For that matter, every discipline is a body of knowledge. An
activity undertaken to verify or revise these facts or principles becomes
research.
2) To collect the data regarding a problem: Research
gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first hand sources. It is not
research when on simply restates what is already known or what has been
written. Research endeavors to research the first hand source of data instead
of serving its purpose with the data available from second hand sources.
3) To conduct logical and objective study: Research
is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedure employed. The researcher eliminates personal
feelings and preferences from his research activity. He works with in the scope
and relevance of his data.
4) To conduct a systematic inquiry of the
subject: Research is said to be a careful and systematic inquiry. It means
that research is a scientific study of facts.
5) For carefully recording, reporting and
presenting the facts: Research is carefully recorded and reported.
Every term is carefully defined, all procedures and described in details, all
limiting factors are recognized, all reference are carefully documented and all
results are objectively recorded.
Various Types of Research
Types of
Research: On the basis of the objectives of the research, we can classify
research into following types:
a)
Applied
Vs. Fundamental Research: Research can either be applied or fundamental.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the marketing research are the examples of applied
research. Fundamental is mainly concerned with generalization and with the
formulation of theory. Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples
of fundamental research.
b)
Descriptive
Vs. Analytical Research: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research
is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social
science and business research, we quite often use the term Ex-post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristics of this
method are that the researcher has no control over the variable; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most ex-post facto research projects
are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such
items:
Ø
Frequency of Shopping.
Ø
Preference of people etc.
In analytical research, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
c)
Quantitative
Vs. Qualitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. It is research methodology that seeks to
quantity the data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis.
Quantitative research is structured in nature and recommends a final course of
action. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon. Qualitative research is important in the behavioural sciences where
the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such
research we can analyze the various factors, which motivate people to behave in
a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
d)
Conceptual
Vs. Empirical Research:
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas of theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it an experimental type of research.
e)
Other
types of research: All
types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some
other similar factors. There are many other types of research based on their
occurrence such as one-time research, field-setting research, clinical or
diagnostic, historical and conclusion-oriented research etc.
Significance of Research in Business Decision Making:
The role of research has greatly increased in
the field of business and economy as a whole. In modern of development three
factors increase the interest in a research to business decision making.
a) The
manager’s increased need for more and better information.
b) The
availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need.
c) The
resulting information overload.
Role of research in important areas of
business through research, an executive can quickly get a information of the
current scenario. The following are the major key areas in which research play
a key role in making effective decisions.
a) Scientific
and Inductive: Research inculcates
scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habit of thinking and organisation.
b) Aid to
Economics Policy: The role of research
in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly
complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of
research in solving operational problems.
Research as an aid to economic policy has gained added importance.
c) Basis for
Policies: Research provides the basis
for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For instance, govt’s budget rest in part on
an analysis of the need and desire of people and on the availability of
revenues to meet these needs. The cost
of need has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where
research is most needed.
d) Operational
and Planning: Research has its special
significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business
and industry. Operation research refers
to application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the
solution of business problems of cost minimization or profit maximization or
optimization problems. Business
budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is
based mainly on sales estimates which in turn depend on business research. Thus research replaces intuitive business
decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.
e) Social
Relationship: Research is equally
important for social scientists in solving social relationship and in seeking
answers to social problems. Research in
social science is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with
knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns.
f) Other
significance of research
Ø To those
student who are to write a master or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean careerism
or a way to attain high position in the social structure.
Ø To professional
in research methodology, It may mean a source of livelihood.
Ø To
philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insight.
Ø To
literary man and women, it may mean the development of new styles and creative
work.
Ø To
analysts and intellectuals, it may mean the generalisation of new theories.
Research Approaches
The above description of the types
of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic approaches to
research, viz., quantitative approach and
the qualitative approach. The
former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This
approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental
and simulation approaches to
research.
The purpose of inferential approach to research is
to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is
studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is
then inferred that the population has the same characteristics. Experimental approach is
characterised by much greater control over the research environment and in this
case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of
an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or
its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the
context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation
of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given
the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation
is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”5 Simulation
approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions.
Qualitative
approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function
of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach to research
generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus
group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All
these are explained at length in chapters that follow.
Developing a Research
Plan
After identifying and defining the problem as
also accomplishing the relating task, researcher must arrange his ideas in
order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be
described as ‘Research Plan’. This is essential specially for new researcher
because of the following:
(a) It helps him to organize his ideas in a
form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies, if
any.
(b) It provides an inventory of what must be
done and which materials have to be collected as a preliminary step.
(c) It is a document that can be given to
others for comment.
Research
plan must contain the following items (Components of a research plan)
1. Research objective should be clearly stated
in a line or two which tells exactly what it is that the researcher expects to
do.
2. The problem to be studied by researcher
must be explicitly stated so that one may know what information is to be
obtained for solving the problem.
3. Each major concept which researcher wants
to measure should be defined in operational terms in context of the research
project.
4. The plan should contain the method to be
used in solving the problem. An overall description of the approach to be
adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any, of the concerning method to
be used are clearly mentioned in the research plan.
5. The plan must also state the details of the
techniques to be adopted. For instance, if interview method is to be used, an
account of the nature of the contemplated interview procedure should be given.
Similarly, if tests are to be given, the conditions under which they are to be
administered should be specified along with the nature of instruments to be
used. If public records are to be consulted as sources of data, the fact should
be recorded in the research plan. Procedure for quantifying data should also be
written out in all details.
6. A clear mention of the population to be
studied should be made. If the study happens to be sample based, the research
plan should state the sampling plan i.e., how the sample is to be identified.
The method of identifying the sample should be such that generalisation from
the sample to the original population is feasible.
7. The plan must also contain the methods to
be used in processing the data. Statistical and other methods to be used must
be indicated in the plan. Such methods should not be left until the data have
been collected. This part of the plan may be reviewed by experts in the field,
for they can often suggest changes that result in substantial saving of time
and effort.
8. Results of pilot test, if any, should be
reported. Time and cost budgets for the research project should also be
prepared and laid down in the plan itself.
Research Design
The most significant part that follows the
task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the design of the
research project, popularly known as ‘research design’. A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. According to Pauline V Young, “The logical
and systematic planning and directing a piece of research is called research
design”. First, it is the plan that
specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
questions. Second, it is strategy or
blueprint specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing
the data. Finally, since most business
research studies have time and economic constraint, both time and cost budget
are typically included.
Need for Research Design: It is needed because
it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
making research as efficient as possible yielding maximum information with
minimal expenditure of efforts, time and money. Research design stands for
advance planning of the methods to be adapted for collecting the relevant data
and technique to be used in their analysis keeping in view the objective of the
research and the availability of staff, time and money. A research design usually involves he
consideration of the following factors:
a. The mean
for obtaining information.
b. The
availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if nay.
c. The
objective of the problem to be studied.
d. The nature
of the problem to be studied.
e. The
availability of time and money for the research work.
Characteristics
of research design
a) Objectivity:
The findings obtained by the research should be objective. It is possible by
allowing more than one person to agree between the final scores/ conclusion of
the research.
b) Reliability:
If the similar research is carried out time and again in a similar setting it
must give similar result. So the researcher must frame the research questions
to make it reliable and provide similar outcomes.
c) Validity:
Any measuring device can be said to be valid if it measures what it is expected
to measure and nothing else. To make a research valid the questionnaire framed
before research must be framed accordingly.
d) Generalization:
The information collected from given sample must be utilized for providing a
general application to the large group of which the sample is drawn.
Types of Research Design
Research design is of four types
a) Sampling
design: In this design the total population is census and a random sample is
taken which denotes the entire population. There are two types of sampling
design:
Ø Probability
Ø Non-probability
b) Observational
design: In this design the researcher plans how to take data for research.
c) Operational
design: In this deign the researcher design how the research is going to be
operated.
d) Statistical
design: In this design the statistical tools to use for research are planned by
the researcher.
Components or essentials of a Research
Design
Components of a Research Design are given below
a) Dependent and
Independent Variables: A magnitude
that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables
are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the
qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or
absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values
quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But,
all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in
integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms,
they are also known as ‘discrete variable’. For example, age is a continuous
variable; whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When
changes in one variable depend upon the changes in one or more other variables,
it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause
the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or
explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price,
then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable.
And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute
commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price.
Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent
variables like own price, income and price of a substitute.
b) Extraneous Variable: The independent variables which are not
directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable
are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants
to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter
is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this
context, intelligence may also influence the school performance.
c) Control: One of the most important features of a
good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable.
Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in
such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables.
The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in
experimental conditions.
d) Confounded
Relationship: The relationship
between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
e) Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research
hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a
dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research
hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent
variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are
predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified are not
classified as research hypothesis.
f) Experimental and
Control Groups: When a
group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing
research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is
exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental
group’. In the aforementioned example, the Group A can be called a
control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B
are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as
‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental
group or the both experimental and control groups together.
g) Treatments: Treatments refer to the different
conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the
example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings
and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to
examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three
different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types
of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
h) Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of
verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research
problem. For instance, the experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of
a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be
categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative
experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical
fertilizer on the yield of a particular variant of the rice crop,
then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to
determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of
bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
i) Experiment Unit: Experimental units refer to the
predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which the different
treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental
units must be selected with great caution.
Research Questions
A research question is a clear,
focused, concise, complex and arguable question around which a researcher
center his research. He should ask a question about an issue in which he is genuinely
curious about. Research questions help writers focus their research by
providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a
well-developed research question helps writers avoid the “all-about” paper and
work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis. A good research question
defines the focus of a research project. A research question helps readers to
know the specific subject matter on which the project lays emphasis.
Steps to developing a research question:
a) Choose an
interesting general topic. Even directed academic research should
focus on a topic in which the writer is at least somewhat personally invested.
Writers should choose a broad topic about which they genuinely would like to
know more.
b) Do some
preliminary research on general topic. Do a few quick searches in current
periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to
help you narrow your focus.
c) Consider audience. For
most college papers, audience will be academic, but always keep your audience
in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question.
d) Start
asking questions. Taking
into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and
“why” questions about your general topic.
Research Process
Research
process can be explained with the help of following diagram:
STEPS TASK
TO BE PERFORMED
1.
Formulation
of
Research
Problem
|
Identification
of Research Problem.
 Selection of Research Problem. |
2.
Review
of Literature
|
Review of
concepts & Theories.
Review of
previous Research Findings.
|
3.
Formulation
of
Hypothesis
|
Discuss the
problem with colleagues.
Examine the
data & Reports.
Developed
tentative assumptions.
|
4.
Operationalisation
of
Concept
|
Define concept
to be used in the study.
Construct
Index.
Construct scale
for measuring variables.
Operationalisation
of concept.
|
5.
Preparation
of the
Research
Plan/Research
Design
|
The means of
obtaining information.
The
availability and splits of the researchers.
Explanation of
the ways in which selected.
Means of
obtaining information will be organized.
Time schedule.
Cost of Scheme.
|
6. Determine the Sample
Design.
|
Define Population.
Determine Sample Size.
Choosing the sample Techniques.
|
7.
Construction
of the
Tools
for Data
Collection
|
Observation.
Personal
Interview.
Telephone
Interview.
Questionnaire.
Schedule.
|
8.
Collection
of data
|
Primary Source.
 Secondary Source. |
9.
Processing
of Data
|
Editing.
Classification.
Coding.
Transcription
of Decoding.
Tabulation.
|
10.
Analysis
of Data
|
Percentage.
Average.
Time Series
Analysis.
Index Number
Analysis.
Use of other
Statistical Tools.
|
11.
Hypothesis
Testing
|
Chi-square
Test.
F-Test.
Z-Test.
 T-Test. |
12.
Interpretation
and
Generalization
|
Draw meaning
from the analysis.
Reach to the
conclusion.
See of the
Conclusion are applicable.
Universally.
Make
Generalization.
|
13.
Report
Writing
Or
Dissertation
|
The Preliminary
Pages.
Main Text.
Introduction.
Main Reports.
Summary &
Findings.
Conclusion.
|