Unit – 4: Research Report
Meaning of Interpretation
The task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analysis and or experimental study is called interpretation. Interpretation is
the device through which the factors that seems to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood.
Interpretation provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for
further researches. It has two major aspects viz,
(i) The efforts to establish continuity in research through
linking the results of a given study with those of another,
(ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
Technique of interpretation
The task of interpretation requires a great skill of researcher.
The art of interpretation can be achieved through practice and experience. The
interpretation techniques involve the following steps:
(a) The relation that the researcher has found must be reasonably
explained. The researcher must interpret
the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying process. He must also try
to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
concept of formulated.
(b) While interpreting the final results of research study, the
extraneous information that he has collected during the study, must be
considered. This helps in understanding
of the problem under consideration.
(c) Before giving final interpretation, the researcher should
consult someone who is expert in the concerned study and will not hesitate in
pointing out the omission and errors in logical argumentation. Such
consultations will result in correct interpretation and thus will enhance the
utility of research results.
(d) The false generalization of interpretation can be avoided by
accomplishing the task of interpretation after considering all the relevant
factors affecting the problem. The
researcher should not make hurry while interpreting the results, otherwise the
interpretation may lead to inaccurate results.
Precautions: Even though the data are properly
collected and analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate
conclusion. The following precautions must be taken while interpreting the
results of a research process:
(a) The researcher should
confirm that:
(i) The data are
appropriate, adequate and trustworthy for drawing inference.
(ii) Proper analysis has
been done through statistical methods.
(iii) The data reflect good
homogeneity.
(b) The researcher must avoid the errors that possibly arise in
the process of interpreting results. The
errors may arise due to false generalization or due to wrong interpretation of
statistical measures such as the identification of correlation with causation,
the application of finding beyond the range of observations, etc. The researcher must be well equipped with and
must know the correct use of statistical measure for drawing inference
concerning his study.
(c) The researcher must always remember that his task is to make
the sensitive observations of relevant occurrences and also identify the
factors that are unknown to the world.
This will enable him to do his job of interpretation more
accurately. The broad generalization
should be avoided, because the coverage of research may be restricted to a
particular time, a particular area and condition. Such restriction must be
specified while interpreting the results and then the results must be framed
within their limitations.
(d) The researcher must always keep in mind that ideally in the
course of research study, there should be constant interpretation between
empirical observations, theoretical conceptions and initial hypothesis. In the
area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation,
the opportunities for originality and creativity lie.
(e) The researcher must always remember that the task of
interpretation is intertwined with analysis. So he should take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly take the
precautions which are to be taken while going through the process of analysis
i.e. the precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks,
validation and comparison of results.
Introduction to Research Report
The final step in any research is to complete the findings into a
summarized format. It is often said that without a research report the research
remains valueless as it cannot be communicated accurately and effectively to
the persons who are responsible for policy decisions.
Meaning of
Research Report: A research report is more or less an official
document that presents the information for an interested reader. It involves
investigation and analysis and the facts may lead to conclusions and
recommendation. The facts must be accurate, complete easy to find and usually
must be interpreted. They provide valuable record for the business. They can
also be made use of in future.
A research
Report can be Defined as: “The process of communicating the results of
an investigation. It is a document which reflects the research conducted and
the care that has been exercised throughout the study”.
Characteristics
of a Good Research Report:
1) Grammatical Accuracy: The
grammatical accuracy of language is of fundamental importance. It is one of the
basic requisite of a good report as of any other piece of composition.
2) Accuracy of Facts: the
scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report.
3) Simple and unambiguous language: A good
report is written in a simple, unambiguous language.
4) Reader Orientation: A good
report is always reader oriented. While drafting a report, it is necessary to
keep in mind the persons who are going the read it.
5) Objectivity of Recommendation: If
recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and
objective. They should come as a logical conclusion to investigation and
analysis.
6) Clarity: The report writer must proceed
systematically. He should make his purpose clear define his source, state his
findings and finally make necessary recommendations. He should divide his
report into short paragraphs giving them headings.
7) Relevance: The facts presented in a report
should be only accurate but relevant also.
Objective/Purpose
of a Research Report:
1) To provide
information to some one who is interested in gathering such information or who
wishes to make use of this information in one way or the other.
2) To have
the full knowledge about a fact.
3) To make
use of the report either for reference or for any other purpose in future.
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
Research report is a channel of communicating the
research findings to the readers of the report. A good research report is one
which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepared
keeping the following precautions in view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since
research reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that
it should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain
interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning more and
more about less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be
avoided, be dull; it should be such as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be
avoided in a research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as
simply as possible. This, in other words, means that report should be written
in an objective style in simple language, avoiding expressions such as “it
seems,” “there may be” and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick
knowledge of the main findings and as such the report must provide a ready
availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and the
statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in
addition to the summary of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out
and must be appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research
problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical
mistakes and must be prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of
composition of report-writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes,
documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the
like.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the
subject matter. It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of
analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and
should necessarily be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem. It must
contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the
policy implications relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually
considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the probable future of
the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be
done in that particular field.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
the technical data in the report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a
good report and must necessarily be given.
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a
good report and as such must be prepared and appended at the end.
13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and
clean, whether typed or printed.
14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and
the various constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also
be stated in the report.
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem,
the methods employed and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly
stated in the beginning of the report in the form of introduction.
Types of Report
1) Technical Report: In the
technical report the main emphasis is on
Ø The method
employed.
Ø Assumptions
made in the course of the study.
Ø The
detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.
A
technical Report consists of the following aspects:
a) Major Findings and Contents: A
technical report will contain the main findings just in two or three pages.
b) Nature of the Research Work: This
describes
Ø The
general objectives of the study.
Ø Formulation
of the problem in operational items.
Ø The
working hypothesis.
Ø The type
of analysis.
Ø Data
required, etc.
c) Research Methodology: This
explains the various methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance:
Ø Sample
Size.
Ø Sample
Selection etc.
d) Data Analysis: This
report analyses the data and their sources, characteristics and limitation. If
secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand is fully
assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should
be fully described.
e) Presentation of Findings: The
researcher presents his main findings of the study with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts.
f) Main Conclusion: Here, the
main findings of the research are presented and the main body of the report,
usually extending over several chapters.
g) Bibliography: This contains the main source of
secondary data.
h) Technical appendices: This
contain all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical
derivation etc.
Conclusion: The
above format provides a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the
order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all technical reports.
Therefore, the presentation may differ.
2) Popular Report: The
popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
The simplification should be sought through
Ø Clear
writing.
Ø Minimization
of technical.
Ø Particularly
mathematical.
Ø Detail and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
The
following is the general outline of a popular report:
a) Major Findings and Conclusions: The
report will have findings of practical interest and their implications.
b) Follow-up Action: It will
suggest follow-up action on the basis of the findings of the study in this
section.
c) Objectives of the Study: Here the
problem is presented, along with the specific objectives of the study.
d) Methodology: Here, a description of the methods
and techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is
based is provided.
e) Results: This is the main body of the report,
presented in clear and non-technical terms with the liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as
Ø Charts.
Ø Diagrams
and the like.
f) Appendices: this consists of detailed
information on the methods used, forms, etc. Appendices are generally not
included if the report is meant for the general public.
3) Oral Reports: An oral report is a piece of face to
face communication about something seen or observed. An oral report is a simple
and easy to present. This type of reporting is required, when the researchers
is asked to make an oral presentation. Making oral presentation is somewhat
difficult compared to written report. This is because; the reporter has to
interact directly with the audience. Any faltering during oral presentation can
leave a negative impression on the audience. In oral presentation,
communication plays a big role. Lot of planning and thinking is required to
decide
Ø What to
say
Ø How to say
Ø How much
to say
4) Written Report: A
written report enjoys several advantages over the oral one:
Ø A oral
report can be denied at any time. But a written report is a permanent record.
The reporter cannot deny what he has reported once.
Ø A written
report can be referred to again and again.
Ø A written
report can change hands without any danger of distortion during transmission.
5) Informal Reports: An
informal report is usually in the form of a person to person communication. An
informal report is usually submitted in the form of a letter, or a memorandum.
6) Formal Report: A formal
report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented according
to an established procedure to a prescribed authority. Formal report can be
statutory or non statutory.
7) Routine Reports: These
are of two types:
i.
Progress Reports: When government departments
give work on contract they insist on such reports from contractors. These
enable the government to know whether the work is progressing according to
schedule.
ii.
Annual Confidential reports on employees. Most
organizations make a periodic evaluation of the performance and general conduct
of their employees. Periodical reports are prepared at regular intervals to
indicate the working of a section or a department. These reports are usually
prepared by filing in a printed form since the information required is of a
routine nature and can be tabulated.
8) Special Reports: These
reports cannot be prepared by filling in forms; they require special skills in
collecting facts and presentation. The people who prepare these reports are
responsible and senior persons. Special reports may be categorized into
following categories:
i.
Inventory
Report: Inventory report is customary for every organization to take
stock of equipment, furniture and stationery etc., at regular intervals. The
person, who checks the stock, fills in his findings in a prescribed form.
ii.
Survey
Report: Survey report is written when a particular area or field has to
be surveyed and its condition observed and recorded.
iii.
Project
Report: Project report is prepared after a proposal takes shape and
usually after the preliminary survey has been completed.
iv.
Inspection
Report: Inspection report is written when an inspection is assigned to a
person, an auditor, an officer from the Head-office, or any senior officer may
be assigned the task of making an inspection of a branch or a section.
v.
Investigation
Report: Investigation report is prepared after an investigation has been
made when a problem cannot be easily solved; the cause need careful searching,
analysis and consideration. When there are losses, labour problems, poor sales,
customer complaints, falling sales, a senior person or a committee of senior
persons is appointed to investigate the causes. It is difficult to make an
investigation and the task requires collection of facts which are not easy to
get. The collected data have to be analyzed and interpreted; conclusions have
to be drawn from the analysis and solutions to the problem have to be
recommended.
Steps in writing a research report
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate
inductive work. The steps involved in
report writing are:
(a) Analysis of subject matter:
This is the first step primarily concerned with development of subject.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connection and
association between one thing and another by means of analysis.
(b) Final outline preparation: It is the next step in writing the
report ‘Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are
constructed. They are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a
reminder of the points to be stressed in the report’.
(c) Preparing of the rough draft:
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the
writing of the rough draft. The researcher should ‘see whether or not the
material, as it is presented, has unity
and cohesion, does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite
pattern, like marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement
and lose bricks’. He should check the
mechanic of writing- grammar, spelling and usage.
(d) Preparation of final bibliography: Next in order comes the
task of the preparation of bibliography.
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is
a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. The entries in bibliography should be made as
follows:
1. For
books and pamphlets
• Name
of the author, last name first.
• Title,
underlined to indicate italic.
• Place,
publisher, and date of publication.
• Number
of volumes.
Example: Kothari, C.R., Quantitative
Techniques, New Delhi, Vikash PUBLISHING House Pvt Ltd., 1978.
2. For
magazines and newspapers:
• Name
of the author, last name first.
• Title
of article, in quotation marks.
• Name
of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
• The
volume or volume and number.
• The
date of issue.
• The
pagination.
Example: Robert V., “Coping with Short-term
International Money Flows”, The Bankers, London, September, 1971, p.995.
(e) Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final
draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expression such as “ it seems”, “there may be” and
like ones. Illustrations and examples
based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they
happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others.
It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must
add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
Layout of a research report
The layout of the report means as to what the research report
should contain. A comprehensive layout
of research report should compromise of following:
(A) Preliminary Pages/prefatory: The preliminary page of a report should carry
the following:
(a) Title Page: The title page should carry:
• The
name of the topic
• The
relationship of the report to a course
• The
name of the author
• The
name of the institution where the report is to be submitted
• The
date of presentation of the report.
(b) Preface: The preface should be started with the brief
introduction. It may include reasons
why, in the first place, the topic was selected by researcher. Preface should also contain the objective of
the research, sources of data for research study.
(c) Acknowledgement: The
acknowledgements are written to thank those who have helped the researcher for
a variety of reasons.
Preface/acknowledgement is usually signed or initiated by its writer.
All pages in the preliminary section are numbered with Roman numerals.
(d) Table of Contents: Table of content provides an outline of the
content of the report. It appears after the preface/acknowledgement. It may contain only a list of chapters and
their appropriate Roman numerals, followed by page numbers on which each
chapter begins.
(B) The Main Body or Text: The main text of the report should have
following sections:
(a) Introduction: The introductory chapter normally includes
the following:
• Statement
of problem
• Objectives/purpose
of the study
• Review
of literature
• Justification
for the present study
• Scope
of the study
• Conceptual
framework
• Methodology
adopted
• Limitations
of study
(b)
Statement of Findings and Recommendations: After introduction a research report must
contain statement of finding and recommendation in non-technical language so
that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to extensive, at this
point they should be put in summerised form.
(c)
Results: A detailed presentations of the findings of the study, with
supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of
results, is the next step in writing the main text of report. All relevant results must find a place in the
reports. All the results should be
presented in a logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable section.
(d)
Implications of then results:
Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should state the
implications that flow from results of the study, for the general reader is
interested in the implications for understanding the human behaviour. Such implications have three aspects:
• A
statement of inference drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
• The
condition of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalization of the inference drawn from the study.
• The
relevant questions that still remains unanswered or new questions raised by
study along with suggestions for kind of research that would provide answers
for them.
(e)
Summary: It has become customary
to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the
research problem, methodology, the major findings and major conclusions drawn
from the research results.
(C) End Matter:
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of
all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical
derivations and the like ones.
(i)
Bibliography: Bibliography of the
sources consulted should also be given.
It is list of documents, books, periodicals, and manuscripts etc. which
have some useful information of the given subject matter.
(ii)
Glossary: It contains explanation
or sample definition of technical terms used in a particular paper.
(iii)
Appendices: An appendix is used
for additional or supplementary material used which has not found place in the
main text.
(iv)
Index: Index should invariably be
given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it
works as a guide to the reader for contents in the report.
Format of a Research report
There are
definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of
the research report. The following points are to be taken care of while
formatting a research report:
(a) Size and physical
design: The manuscript should be written
on unruled paper 8/12 x 11 in size. If it is to be written by hand, then black
or blue –black ink should be used. A margin of at least one and one-half inches
should be allowed at left hand at least half an inch at right side of the
paper. It is to be typed in double spacing on one side of the page only except
for insertion of the long question.
(b) Procedure: Various
steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered.
(c) Layout: Keeping in view the objectives and nature of
the problem, the layout of the report should be thought of and decided and
accordingly adopted.
(d) Treatment of
Quotations: Quotations should be placed
in quotation mark and double spaced forming an immediate part of the text. But
if a quotation is of a considerable length then it should be single-spaced and
indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin.
(e) The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep the
following in view:
• The
footnotes serves two purposes viz, the identification of material used in
quotations in the report and the notice of material not immediately necessary
to body of research report text but still of supplemental value. The modern tendency is to make minimum use of
footnotes.
• Footnotes
are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which
they identify or supplement ends.
Footnotes are customary separated from the textual material by a space
of half an inch and a line.
• Footnotes
should be numbered, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter separately.
• Footnotes
are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by
double space.
(f)
Documentary style: Regarding
documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work should be
complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition
used. Such documentary footnotes follow
a general sequence.
(f)
Punctuation and abbreviations:
The first item after the number in footnote is author’s name, given in
the normal signature order. This is
given by a coma. The punctuation and abbreviations should be used correctly.
(g) Use
of Statistics: A judicious use of
statistics in research report is often considered a virtue for it contributes a
great deal towards the clarifications and simplification of the material and
research results. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables,
charts, bars and line-graphs and pictograms.
Concept of
Referencing
Referencing is
one of the most important aspects of any academic research and poor or lack of
referencing will not only diminish your marks, but such practices may also be
perceived as plagiarism by your university and disciplinary actions may follow
that may even result in expulsion from the course. The most popular referencing
systems used in academic works include Havard, APA and Vancouver Referencing
Systems.
The Difference between References and Bibliography
a) It is very important to be able to distinguish
between References and Bibliography. Under References you list resources that
you referred to within the body of the work that also include quotations.
For example,
b) It has been noted that “time and the
management of time is an important issue, and the supply of time management
products – books, articles, CDs, workshops, etc. – reflects the huge demand for
these products” (Walsh, 2007, p.3).
c) Interchangeability of identical parts and a
high level of straightforwardness of attaching these parts through the assembly
line can be considered as revolutionary components of Fordism for the first
part of the 20th century (Nolan, 2008).
d) Under Bibliography, on the other hand, you
need to list resources that you have read during the research process in order
to widen your knowledge about the research area, but specific piece of
information from these resources have not been used in your research in the
direct manner. You do not need to refer to Bibliography within the body of the
text.