Fundamentals of Computers
Information Technology and Its Application in Business
B.Com (Non CBCS)
Unit – 2: Fundamentals of Computers
Meaning of Computer
The term
‘computer’ usually refers to an electronic device made of electronic circuits
which processes data into meaningful information under the control of specific
step-by-step instruction arranged as a program. It perform many functions such
as calculation, storage, manipulation & retrieval of information. The key
characteristics (or advantages) of a computer are:
1.
Speed: The speed of a computer is usually measured in
milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds and picoseconds which are
2.
Accuracy: Errors do occur in computer based information
systems but precious few can be directly attributed to the computer system
itself. The vast majority can be traced to a program which is mainly human
errors.
3.
Capacity of Decision Making: By suitable programming, computers
can also perform intelligent functions of decision making.
4.
Reliability: The system does repetitive work with
huge volumes of data correctly. One can rely on them to work non-stop, keeping
a back up of data and also an Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS).
5.
Memory Capability: Computer systems have total instant
recall of data and an almost unlimited capacity to store these data. A computer
system can hold billion characters at a time can be retrieved at random.
Advantages
of Computer System:
a. Speed: The
smallest unit of time that a human being can experience is second. But Computer
operations are measured in milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds and
picoseconds. Today computers can perform more than 2500 MIPS. They can handle
very complex tasks in seconds.
b. Accuracy:
Errors occur in computers also but only few errors can be attributed
(=credited) to a computer. In most of the cases errors occur due to program
logic error, procedural error or erroneous data. Really speaking, these are
human errors.
c. Reliability:
Computers can perform repetitive tasks very well. They don’t take sick days and
coffee breaks and they rarely make any complaints. Even the error rate of 0.1%
is unacceptable.
d. Memory
capability: Computer systems can instantly recall the data and their storage
capacity is almost unlimited. Today, even ordinary personal computers are
coming with 10 to 40 GB of memory. High end computers can support still more
memory.
e. Flexibility:
Modern digital computers can be used for a variety of purposes and everything
depends on the program inside the computer.
f. Choice of
configuration: A wide range of optional peripherals are available in the
market. A business organisation can select those peripherals which are most
suitable for its processing requirements.
Limitations of computer system
The
limitations of compute are as follows:
1)
GIGO: Garbage in Garbage Out i.e. computer does not have
its own IQ and an incorrect input data would result in an incorrect output. The
computer does what it is programmed to do and can do nothing else.
2)
Limitations of Software: To perform specialized functions,
special software is required. The investment in software is much more than in
hardware.
3)
Tampering of Data: Data handling through computers
require special protection routines.
4)
Limitations of Hardware: Smaller computers can perform
relatively limited work at a slower speed. So more investments is to be
required for higher speed computers.
Components of a Computer System
2.
(a) Control Unit 2.
(b) A.L.U 4.
(a) Primary 4. (b) Secondary
1.
Input:
a)
Entry
of program statement & data into a computer is done by means of an input
device.
b)
Keyboard,
floppy, disk drives, cartridge tape device are the various input devices.
c)
All
input devices are instruments of interpretation and communication between
people and computer.
2.
CPU:
a)
Is
the heart of the computer?
b)
It
contains the logic that controls the calculation doe by the computer.
c)
It
is the central processor that makes comparisons, performs calculations, reads,
interprets & controls the execution of the instructions.
d)
The
CPU consists of two separate sub-units –
i.
Control
unit
ii.
Arithmetic
logic unit.
In the PC, the CPU is connected to a
bus; the bus is a communication device or in other words a connection between
various parts of the computer.
1)
Control Unit:
a) Supervises the operations of entire
computer,
b) Acts as a Central Nervous System by
maintaining the order & directing the flow of sequence of operation &
data within the computer,
c) It selects the program statement from
the storage unit, interprets the statement & sends the appropriate
electronic impulses to Arithmetic/Logic and storage units which carries out the
required operation.
d) Its basic function is to instruct the
input device, when to start & stop transferring data to output devices.
2)
ALU:
a) Performs calculation, compares numeric
& Non-numeric values & make decisions.
b) Data is transferred from the storage
unit to ALU which is again manipulated & returned to storage unit.
3.
Output Devices:
a)
Are
instruments that communicate between users & machine?
b)
Meant
for presenting results.
c)
Translates
computer output in user understandable form.
d)
Printer,
VDU, Graph-Plotters are the output devices.
e)
Captures
information in machine coded form & converts them into a form usable by
humans computers.
4.
Storage:
a)
Primary:
Ø Has no logic capability and is one a
storage unit for data and instruction.
Ø It is passive in nature. Memory is
only a storage place for information. Instructions are executed in CPU. Data
are moved between the CPU and memory when a calculation is performed.
b)
Secondary: (Diskette drive, disk etc.)
Ø Are machines & are connected online
to CPU and serve as reference libraries?
Ø Used as a store house & used only
when necessary.
Ø Magnetic tapes, Floppy, H.D. CDS etc.
are the devices.
Ø Usually larger and cheaper than
Primary.
Computer
Generations
The computers
have been grouped into chronological categories, called generations. Computer
generation means a step of advancement in technology. It also reflects the
growth of computer industry. The advancement in technology existed not only in
hardware but also in software. The evolution of modern computer is divided in
different generations as below:
1. First
Generation: The first generation of computers was developed in late 1940s. In
this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used and these were bulky in
size. These computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a
great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which
was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation
computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they
could only solve one problem at a time. It would take operators days or even
weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape,
and output was displayed on printouts.
2. Second
Generation: In the generation of computers, solid state devices called
transistors, diodes etc. were developed by William Shockley and colleagues at
Bell laboratories. These solid state devices were used in place of vacuum
tubes. This replacement increased the speed of computers and other drawbacks
were reduced. Second generation computers were smaller in size, cheaper in
manufacturing. These computers occupied lesser space and consumed lesser power.
3. Third
Generation: These computers have secondary storage devices and new input and
output devices like visual display terminals, magnetic ink readers and high
speed printers, integrated solid state circuit (IC chips). I.C. chips increased
the speed of these computers. These computers performed the arithmetic and
logic operations in micro- seconds (Millionths of a second) or even in
nano-second (Billionths of a second). The size and cost of these computers have
decreased considerably.
4. Fourth
Generation: Integrated Circuits Technology was further developed. In 1971,
INTEL Corp. of USA developed the IC chips which have the entire computer
circuit on a single silicon chip. These chips are called microprocessors. These
microprocessors gave birth to micro-computers called micro-processors. In 1976,
Steve Wozniak developed a series of micro-computers called .The Allple Series..
These computers were the most modern computers. These were much cheaper
relative to performance in comparison to early computers.
5. Fifth
Generation: Fifth generation computers are those computers, which not only have
the advanced capabilities like speed, accuracy, storage and retrieval
capabilities of other computers but have also additional ability to think and
make decisions. The ability of intelligence in computers is called Artificial
Intelligence (AI). Japanese have named this generation of computers as KIPS
(Knowledge Information on Processing System).
Different
Types of Computers
Since
the advent of the first computer different types and sizes of computers
are offering different services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large
building and as small as a laptop or a microcontroller in mobile
& embedded systems. The four basic types of computers are as under:
a)
Supercomputer
b)
Mainframe
Computer
c)
Minicomputer
d)
Microcomputer
a)
Supercomputer:
The most
powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes,
like NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them
and for space exploration purpose.
b)
Mainframe
computer: Although
Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses
Mainframes to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size.
Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks educational
institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data
about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
c)
Minicomputer:
Minicomputers
are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as
“Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a
disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers
& Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a
single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use
Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department can
use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.
d)
Microcomputer:
Desktop
computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones
are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the
fastest growing computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other
three types of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed for
general usage like entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known
manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony & Toshiba.
Desktop
computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.
Types of memory in a Computer
1) Primary memory
2) Secondary
memory
1)
Primary memory:
Primary memory, also known as internal memory or main memory is a memory which is
directly accessible by the CPU. It’s a memory which is used to store frequently
used programs which can be directly accessed by the processing unit for further
processing. It’s a volatile memory meaning the data is stored temporarily and
is liable to change or lose in case of power failure. The primary memory is of
two types such as:
a) Random Access
Memory (RAM)
b) Read only
memory (ROM)
Random
Access Memory
The memory system
constructed with metal oxide semi conductor storage elements that can be changed
is called Random Access Memory. It is used to hold intermediary data in the
computer. The contents of this memory chips are temporary and can be easily
changed. It is the workspace for the computer’s processor. When people talk
about computer memory, they usually mean volatile memory. It is called random
access memory because access time in RAM is independent of the address of the
data. Each storage location (address) inside the memory is as easy to reach as
any other location and takes the same amount of time. One can reach into the
memory at random and insert or remove numbers in any location at anytime.
Types of RAM:
a. Dynamic RAM: It is the most common type of main
memory. It is dynamic because each memory cell quickly loses its charge. So it
must be refreshed for hundreds of times each second. In olden days refreshing
was done by Microprocessor. Due to this, lot of processing power was wasted.
But today’s dynamic RAM is coming with built in refresh circuits. This saves
lot of processing power.
b. Static RAM: Static RAM (SRAM) is like DRAM but it
is faster, larger and more expensive. It is static because it is not required
to refresh the contents of RAM continuously. Because of its speed, SRAM is
mainly used in special area of memory called cache memory.
Read
Only Memory:
Another type of computer memory is Read-Only-Memory (ROM). It is used for
storing micro programs, not available to normal programmers. The information is
permanently stored during manufacturing. The information from the memory can be
read but fresh information cannot be written. Generally ROM is used to store
instructions that are frequently needed, for executing small, extremely basic
operations, which will not be available in the computer’s circuitry.
Different kinds
of ROM:
a. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory is a
non-volatile memory which allows the user to program the chip with a PROM
writer. User can record any data or instructions. The only problem with PROM
chips is that once data is recorded on them, it cannot be changed.
b. EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory. EPROM chips can be electrically programmed. Unlike ROM and
PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased and reprogrammed. With the help of
ultraviolet light, the data or instructions on an EPROM chip can be erased and
new data can be recorded in its place.
c. EEPROM: It stands for Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory. This is the latest addition to the ROM family of
chips. For the purpose of reprogramming, they need not be removed from the
machine. Changes can be made electrically, under the control of a software.
2)
Secondary memory:
The maximum capacity of primary memory is limited. So to handle more data than
allowed by primary memory, secondary memory is used. And it is non-volatile i.e.
data is not lost due to current failure. Magnetic tape, Floppy disk and Hard
disk are some examples of secondary memory.
1.
Magnetic Storage/Hard Disk: This is the oldest of the technologies and is used
in floppy disks, hard disks and tapes. Magnetic disks are read
with a moving head inside the disk drive and magnetic tapes are read by
moving the tape past a read-write head.
Advantages:
a) High Capacity
b) Cheap relative to amount of space
Disadvantages:
a) Non Portable
b)
2. Optical Storage/Compact Disk: The word
“optical” should make you think about the eye and how we see the world
in terms of reflected light. Optical media work in a similar way. They
use a surface where a pattern of reflective and non-reflective areas represents
the binary data.
Advantages:
a) CD drives are common in PC’s and Laptops
b) Easily portable
c) Blu-ray discs are easily layered so can hold massive amount of data
Disadvantages:
a) Easily damaged/scratched
b) Quite expensive for rewritable discs
Advantages: 1. Fast read and write times compared to both other types 2. Resistant to shock so highly portable
Disadvantages: 1. Low storage compared to other two types 2. Expensive for high capacity storage
Software and its Types
Meaning: A set of
instructions (in machine code) given to the computer to solve user problems and
to control different operations of the computer is known as computer software.
The software is developed in programming languages. The Computer software is classified
into two main categories:
1. Application
software.
2. System
software.
1. Application Software: Application Software is the specific that can do
specified application. Application Software is designed to fulfill the
requirement to people. Application Software enables a computer to perform a
specific task such as handling financial accounting, processing words,
preparing exam result, producing bills, manipulating images and videos, etc.
Application Software does its tasks with the help of operating system. There
are two types of Application Software. They are:
a.
Packaged Software
b.
Customized or Tailored Software
a.
Packaged Software:
Packaged Software is the ready made software
developed for all general users to perform their generalized tasks. Software
companies use to develop packaged software. Some commonly used packages are
given below:
Word
Processing Software: used for creating documents. Examples:
MS-Word, Aldus PageMaker, Word Perfect, etc.
Electronic
Spreadsheet Software: used for keeping accounts and do calculations. Examples:
MS-Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, etc
Database
Management System Software: used for database management. Examples:
MS-Access, Dbase, FoxPro, Sybase, SQL Server, Oracle, etc.
Graphics
Software: used for creating and manipulating images. Examples:
CorelDraw, Paintbrush, PhotoShop etc.
Multimedia
Software: used for designing multimedia. Examples: 3D
Max, Maya, Flash, PowerPoint, Windows Media Player, etc.
b.
Customized or Tailored Software:
Customized or Tailored Software is the
application software which is designed to fulfill the specific requirements of
an organization, office or individual. Customized or Tailored Software is used
for the organization, office or person for whom it is developed. SLC Result
Processing Software, Hospital Management Software, School Management Software,
Bill Processing Software, Air Ticket Reservation Software, Banking software
etc. customized software. Reservation software, Banking software etc. are
customized software.
2. System
Software: System software is a set of programs that control the operations of a
computer and devices attached with the computer. It creates links between user
and computer as well as controls the execution of application programs. The
examples of system software are:
a) Operating
systems.
b) Sub-routine
c) Device
Drivers.
d) Assemblers and
compilers.
e) Utility
Software
a)
Operating
Systems: Operating Systems optimize man-machine capabilities i.e., the human
intervention is minimized. Operating systems work in multi-programming mode.
Multi-programming means interleaved execution of several programs to enhance
the productivity of the computer. The scheduling for execution of these
programs in parts is handled by a special program known as the supervisory
program.
b)
Diagnostic
routines are supplied by the computer manufactures. They assist in debugging
the programs by providing a printout of the contents of the memory upon
execution of each instruction sequentially.
c)
Assemblers
/ Compilers: These are translation programs written and supplied by the
computer manufacturers and are used to translate a program written in the
source language into the machine language of the computer on hand.
d)
Sub-routine:
A sub-routine is a section of a main program which is incorporated into the
latter, as required to perform a series of basic instruction. Subroutines are
called in from the backing storage when necessary unless incorporated during
program assembly or compilation. Sub-routines consist of instructions to
perform tasks which are common to many different applications or appear
repetitively in the same program and their inclusion avoids the necessity of
writing them and debugging them specially for each application.
e)
Utility
Software: Utility Software is the helpful
software that performs specific tasks related to the maintenance of computer
hardware and data. Utility Software helps to keep a computer in the smooth
functioning condition. Utility Software provides facilities for performing
tasks like transferring data and file, recovering lost data and file, searching
and removing computer viruses, disk management etc. PC Tools, Download
Accelerator (DAP), SplitFile, Anti Viruses, WinZip, WinRaR, Defrag, Norton Disk
Doctor (NDD), Register Cleaner, History Cleaner, Backup Software, Disk tools
etc. are some examples of Utility Software.
1.
Antivirus
software helps to protect a computer system from viruses and other harmful
programs. A computer virus is a computer program that can cause damage to a
computer's software, hardware or data. It is referred to as a virus because it
has the capability to replicate itself and hide inside other computer files.
2.
Backup
software helps in the creation of a backup of the files on your computer. Most
computer systems use a hard disk drive for storage. While these are generally
very robust, they can fail or crash, resulting in costly data loss. Backup
software helps you copy the most important files to another storage device, such
as an external hard disk.
3.
Disk
tools include a range of different tools to manage hard disk drives and other
storage devices. This includes utilities to scan the hard disks for any
potential problems, disk cleaners to remove any unnecessary files, and disk
defragmenters to re-organize file fragments on a hard disk drive to increase
performance. Disk tools are important because a failure of a hard disk drive
can have disastrous consequences. Keeping disks running efficiently is an
important part of overall computer maintenance.
Hardware
Hardware is best described as a device,
such as a hard drive, that is physically connected to the computer or
something that can be physically touched. A CD-ROM, computer display monitor,
printer, and video card are all examples of computer hardware. Without any
hardware, a computer would not function, and software would have nothing to run
on. Hardware and software interact with one another: software tells hardware
which tasks it needs to perform.
Types
of Hardware:
Input devices –
keyboard, image scanner, microphone, pointing device, graphics tablet,
joystick, light pen, mouse, touchpad, touchscreen, trackball, webcam
Output devices –
monitor, printer, speakers
Removable data
storage - optical disc drive (CD-RW, DVD+RW), floppy disk, memory card, USB
flash drive
Computer case -
central processing unit (CPU), hard disk, motherboard, network interface
controller, power supply, random-access memory (RAM), sound card, video card
Data ports -
Ethernet firewire, parallel port, serial port, universal serial bus (USB)
There are several
differences between computer hardware and software.
Operating system and Its types
An operating
system (OS) is software, consisting of programs and data that runs on computers
and manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for
efficient execution of various application software.
Types of
operating systems:
1)
Real-time
Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing
real-time applications. The main object of real-time operating systems is their
quick and predictable response to events.
2)
Multi-user
and Single-user Operating Systems: The operating systems of this type allow a
multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system
can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access
to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as
opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a
time.
3)
Multi-tasking
and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run
at a time, the system is grouped under a single-tasking system, while in case
the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is
classified as a multi-tasking operating system.
4)
Distributed
Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent
computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a
distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could
be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing.
5)
Embedded
System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer
systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate
on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.
Functions of
Operating System: Some
of the facilities offered by operating system are described below:
1) It communicates with the computer
operator by means of the console unit or typewriter.
2) In control the flow of jobs by loading
and unloading of programs.
3) It supervises multi-programming
operation including :
a) Managing assembly /compilation and
execution of programs.
b) Allocating control to each program
according to its priority and the operating state of peripheral.
c) Protecting each program’s working
storage from over-writing by another program.
4) It undertake errors diagnosis and
recovery techniques in case of error conditions.
5) It allocates peripherals to programs
and checks their availability.
6) It warns the operator when peripheral
units require alteration.
7) It forms an essential element of
real-time system.
8) It automates the logging of
time-relating to computer operations.
a) Word Processing.
b) Firmware.
Meaning of Electronic Data Interchange
EDI or Electronic
Data Interchange is the virtual exchange of data or business documents in
electronic format between trading partners. This exchange of documents is
generally between buyer and supplier and consists of transferring purchase
orders, invoices, payments, shipping notices and various other documents and by
nature eliminates paper trails, improves operational efficiency and enhances
virtual exchanges with new trading partners. With EDI, any company can
virtually interact with another organisation anywhere in the world without the
hassle of waiting times and forecasting future procedures.
Merits
of Electronic data interchange (EDI):
1)
Reduces
cost: Reduces the overall costs of running a business, as the computer system
carries out difficult and complicated tasks automatically. The cost of paper
and paper processing is reduced due to electronic exchange of data.
2)
Overall
monitoring of business activities: The computer system monitors and controls
most aspects of the business. Stock levels, order levels, accounts and invoices
are known immediately, without the need for labourious manual intervention and
accounting.
3)
Save
time: EDI furthermore saves time over paper processing since the transfer of
data from computer to computer is self-acting. There is no need to re key
information with EDI. Efficiency levels are very high, as human error is
minimised. The effective flow of business is assured.
4)
Improved
Security: EDI systems enhance security for the customer and company.
Improved communication between employees and branches, due to the use of
standardised document and data formats.
5)
Improve clientele
Service: The fast
transfer of enterprise documents and assessed decline in mistakes helps to do
business faster and more efficient.
6)
Elaborate Customer Base: Therefore with improved clientele
service, we can finally elaborate our clientele base. Many large manufacturers
and retailers are ordering their suppliers to institute an EDI program. So,
when assessing a new product to carry or a new supplier to use, the ability to
do EDI is a large-scale in addition to.
7)
Building long-term relationships EDI
helps in building long term relationships with trading partners and hence helps
in business growth.
Demerits
or Barriers of Electronic data interchange (EDI):
1)
Too Many measures: There are too numerous measures
bodies developing standard documents formats for EDI. Data Protection
Laws, protecting customers and employees, must be applied and adhered to by
employees and the company.
2)
Changing Standards: Each year, most measures bodies
publish modifications to the measures. This increases difficulty for EDI users.
3)
EDI is Too Expensive: Some companies are only doing
enterprise with others who use EDI. If a business likes to do enterprise with
these associations, they have to apply an EDI program. This expense may be very
huge for little companies.
4)
Chances
of fraud and hacking: Systems need continual electronic
protection, from viruses, hacking and potential fraud.
5)
Chances of System failure: EDI systems
need regular software updates. In case of a systems failure, manual systems
must also be in place to ensure that business continues.
6)
Huge investment of training: Staff
must receive training, every time the EDI system is updated. This is a
continuous investment. Companies relying on EDI must invest in backup systems,
in case the primary system fails. Human input error is still potentially a
problem, although the software being used should highlight most errors.
7)
Limit your trading partners: Some
organization stops doing business which don’t use EDI. For instance, Wal-Mart
prefers to do business only with those organization which uses EDI.
Techniques/Types of EDI
Mainly
EDI working technology involves two methods. They are:
1)
Direct method: Under this method, a dial-up or leased
line is used by sending company to connect to trading partner’s computer and
direct transmission occurs. On the receipt of information, for being used in
local IT systems, trading partner’s EDI system translates standardized EDI data
into local format. However, this method necessitates use of compatible hardware
and communication software by two companies.
Business Translation Dial up or Translation Business
Partner 1 Software Leased Lines Software Partner
2
2)
Indirect method: Under this method, generally, data is
transmitted over a Value Added Network (VAN). VAN refers to a system where for
the purpose of transmission and storage of messages between business partners,
telecommunication lines are linked to an electronic mailbox. A database
facility which can be situated in computers of business partners can also be
used with electronic mailbox. In database of receiver, messages are processed
and updated through mailbox system with integration of electronic mailbox and
database facility.
Business Partner A Business Partner B
VAN
Z
Business Partner C Business Partner D
EDI
standards
EDI
standards are very broad and general because they have to meet the need of all
businesses. EDI provides on electronic linkage between two trading partners. To
send documents electronically to each other, firms must agree on a specific
data format and technical environment.
Types of EDI
Standards
National
standards:
1. ODETTE:
An EDI format developed for European motor industry. ODETTE
stands for organization for data exchange by tele transmission in Europe.
2. TRADACOMS:
It is UK national standard, which is developed by ANA (Article
number association) in 1982. ANSI ASC X12 (American national standards – X12) –
X12 is a standard that defines many different types of documents, student loan
applications, injury and illness supports and shipment and billing notices.
International
standards
1. EDIFACT –
(Electronic data interchange for administration, commerce and transport) was
developed during 1990’s with a subset of EANCOM, which is the most widely used
dialect of EDIFACT in international retail and distribution sector.
2. UN/EDIFACT –
(United nations/electronic data interchange for administration commerce and
transport) is an international set of EDI standards that are published by
united nations trade data interchange (UNIDID).
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