2012 (August)
COMMERCE
Paper: 102
(Organisational Behaviour and Theory)
Full Marks – 80
Time – Three Hours
The figures in the
margin indicate full marks for the questions.
1. (a) What are the
different types of organisation? How are organisations classified on the basis
of functions performed? 8+8=16
Ans: TYPOLOGIES
OF ORGANISATION: Some scholars based on size, ownership, legal status and the area
of operation have classified organisation. Another set of scholars has
classified the organisation based on function or purpose, primary beneficiary,
consumer and authority. Now we will be discussing about the classification
based on the latter set of scholars.
a)
Typologies by Goal or Function or Purpose
Talcott Parsons has classified organisations into four types on
the basis of their functions or goal served by the organisation. The four types of organisations are:
i) Production/Economic Organisation: these types of organisations
produce goods or make things which are consumed by the society.
ii) Political Organisation: these types of organisations are
concerned with the attainment of political goals. They generate and allocate
power within the society and also maintain peace and stability in the society.
Legislature and government departments are examples of such organisations.
iii) Integrative Organisations: These organisations try to settle
conflicts, integrate and coordinate various segments of the society to work
together and provide stability in the society. Judicial courts, police, and
social agencies are examples of this type of organisation.
iv) Pattern Maintenance Organisation: These organisations are concerned with the
societal continuity with a focus on long-term issues such as of society’s
values, patterns, knowledge, culture, etc. through the educational, cultural
and religious institutions.
Katz and Kahn have also classified organisations into four types
based on the functions or goals served by the organisation. The four types of
organisations are:
(i) Production or Economic Organisation: These organisations are
concerned with the manufacture of goods, provision of essential services to the
people and also building up of infrastructure. Their focus is on creation of
wealth.
(ii) Managerial or Political Organisation: These organisations are
concerned with adjudication; coordination and control of resources; people; and
sub-systems.
(iii) Adaptive Organisation: These organisations provide
opportunities for creation of knowledge, testing and development of theories
and also provide information and solutions to the existing problems.
Universities and research institutions are examples of these organisations.
(iv) Maintenance Organisation: These organisations give space and
scope and devote to the socialization of people for their roles in other
organisations and in the larger society. Schools, church, and health and
welfare institutions are examples of this type of organisation.
b)
Typologies on the Bases of the Consumer or Primary Beneficiary Blau and Scott
They classified the organisation based on the primary recipient of
the output or who benefits. The main basis for this classification is who the direct
consumer of the output of the organisation is, or who the prime beneficiary is.
Four types of organisation are derived on this basis:
(i) Mutual Benefit Association: In this type of organisation the
primary beneficiaries are the members themselves. Political parties, trade
unions, professional associations and religious bodies are examples of these
organisations.
(ii) Business Organisations or Business Concerns: In this type of
organisation the owners of properties are the prime beneficiaries of the organisation.
They are mostly concerned about the return on investment in the organisation
than with the nature of output of the organisation. The other main concern is
that of operating efficiently to make the maximum profit at minimum cost. In
order to survive they have to compete with other organisations.
(iii) Service Organisations: In this type of organisation the
clients who are served are the prime beneficiaries. Hospitals, educational
institutions, social work agencies legal aid societies, etc. are examples of
these organisations.
The clients who are supposed to be the primary beneficiaries do not have usually control over these organisations.
The clients who are supposed to be the primary beneficiaries do not have usually control over these organisations.
(iv) Commonwealth Organisations: In this type of organisation the
public at large is its primary beneficiary. Post office, police service, fire
department, military service are examples of these types of organisations. They
perform mostly protective services or serve as its administrative arm.
c)
Typologies on the Basis of Compliance A. Etzioni: He differentiates organisation on the basis of compliance.
Compliance involves one party telling or directing another party to do
something. It refers to the manner in which the lower participants in an
organisation respond to the authority system of the organisation. In this
context, Etzioni identifies three types of power: coercive, utilitarian and
normative. Coercive power is based on the application or the threat of physical
sanction. Here compliance is alienated. Utilitarian power is based on control
over material resources. Here compliance takes a calculative or utilitarian
approach. Normative power based on the allocation of symbolic rewards. Here the
compliance is moral. Almost all the organisations would follow the three types
of authority, which combine three types of compliance.
d) Typologies
on the Basis of Authority: Max Weber
identifies three types of organisation on the basis of exercise of authority.
They are explained below:
(i) Charismatic Authority: In this type of organisation there will
be a leader and set of disciples or followers. Because of charisma or an
exceptional quality of the followers accept his authority or repose their faith
in the person. In this type of organisation the administrative apparatus is
very loose and unstable that is a built in instability.
(ii) Traditional Authority: In this type of organisation the
followers or employees accept the authority of a person who occupies the
traditionally sanctioned position of authority. The administrative apparatus in
this kind of domination would consist of personal servants, relatives and
feudal lords.
(iii) Legal or Rational Authority: In this type of organisation
people or followers accept the authority of a leader, which is based on the
belief in the rightness of law. It is legal because authority is exercised by
means of a system of rules and procedures by reason of the office, which an
individual holds. The administrative apparatus corresponding to this kind of
authority is bureaucracy.
Or
(b) Compare and
contrast the classical, neoclassical and modern approach towards organisation. 16
Ans: The practice of management is as old as
human civilization. The ancient civilizations of Egypt (the great pyramids),
Greece (leadership and war tactics of Alexander the great) and Rome displayed
the marvelous results of good management practices. The origin of management as
a discipline was developed in the late 19th century. Over time, management
thinkers have sought ways to organize and classify the voluminous information
about management that has been collected and disseminated. These attempts at
classification have resulted in the identification of management approaches.
The approaches of management are theoretical frameworks for the study of
management. Each of the approaches of management are based on somewhat
different assumptions about human beings and the organisations for which they
work. The different approaches of management are:
a)
Early management approaches represented by scientific management (Classical
approach or Theories)
b)
Modern management approaches represented by behavioral science movement,
quantitative approach, systems approach and Contingency approach (Neo-classical
approach or theories)
a)
THE CLASSICAL APPROACH: The classical approach is the oldest formal
approach of management thought. Its roots pre-date the twentieth century. The
classical approach of thought generally concerns ways to manage work and
organisations more efficiently. Three areas of study that can be grouped under
the classical approach are scientific management, administrative management,
and bureaucratic management.
(i) Scientific Management: Frederick
Winslow Taylor is known as the father of scientific management. Scientific
management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of
management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of
improving labor productivity. In other words, Traditional rules of thumb are
replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual
at work.
(ii) Administrative Management:
Administrative management focuses on the management process and principles of
management. In contrast to scientific management, which deals largely with jobs
and work at the individual level of analysis, administrative management
provides a more general theory of management. Henri Fayol is the major
contributor to this approach of management thought.
(iii) Bureaucratic Management:
Bureaucratic management focuses on the ideal form of organisation. Max Weber
was the major contributor to bureaucratic management. Based on observation,
Weber concluded that many early organisations were inefficiently managed, with
decisions based on personal relationships and loyalty. He proposed that a form
of organisation, called a bureaucracy, characterized by division of labor,
hierarchy, formalized rules, impersonality, and the selection and promotion of
employees based on ability, would lead to more efficient management. Weber also
contended that managers' authority in an organisation should be based not on
tradition or charisma but on the position held by managers in the
organisational hierarchy.
b)
Neo-classical approach: It can be studied under the following
headings:
a) THE BEHAVIORAL Or SITUATIONAL
APPROACH: The behavioral approach of management thought developed, in part,
because of perceived weaknesses in the assumptions of the classical approach.
The classical approach emphasized efficiency, process, and principles. Some
felt that this emphasis disregarded important aspects of organisational life,
particularly as it related to human behavior. Thus, the behavioral approach
focused on trying to understand the factors that affect human behavior at work.
(i) Human Relations: The Hawthorne
Experiments began in 1924 and continued through the early 1930s. A variety of
researchers participated in the studies, including Elton Mayo. One of the major
conclusions of the Hawthorne studies was that workers' attitudes are associated
with productivity. Another was that the workplace is a social system and
informal group influence could exert a powerful effect on individual behavior.
A third was that the style of supervision is an important factor in increasing
workers' job satisfaction.
(ii) Behavioral Science: Behavioral
science and the study of organisational behavior emerged in the 1950s and
1960s. The behavioral science approach was a natural progression of the human
relations movement. It focused on applying conceptual and analytical tools to
the problem of understanding and predicting behavior in the workplace. The
behavioral science approach has contributed to the study of management through
its focus on personality, attitudes, values, motivation, group behavior,
leadership, communication, and conflict, among other issues.
b) THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH: The
quantitative approach focuses on improving decision making via the application
of quantitative techniques. Its roots can be traced back to scientific
management.
(i) Management Science: Management
science (also called operations research) uses mathematical and statistical
approaches to solve management problems. It developed during World War II as
strategists tried to apply scientific knowledge and methods to the complex
problems of war. Industry began to apply management science after the war. The
advent of the computer made many management science tools and concepts more
practical for industry
(ii) Production And Operations Management:
This approach focuses on the operation and control of the production process
that transforms resources into finished goods and services. It has its roots in
scientific management but became an identifiable area of management study after
World War II. It uses many of the tools of management science. Operations
management emphasizes productivity and quality of both manufacturing and
service organisations. W. Edwards Deming exerted a tremendous influence in
shaping modern ideas about improving productivity and quality. Major areas of
study within operations management include capacity planning, facilities
location, facilities layout, materials requirement planning, scheduling,
purchasing and inventory control, quality control, computer integrated
manufacturing, just-in-time inventory systems, and flexible manufacturing
systems.
c) SYSTEMS APPROACH: The systems
approach focuses on understanding the organisation as an open system that
transforms inputs into outputs. The systems approach began to have a strong
impact on management thought in the 1960s as a way of thinking about managing
techniques that would allow managers to relate different specialties and parts
of the company to one another, as well as to external environmental factors.
The systems approach focuses on the organisation as a whole, its interaction
with the environment, and its need to achieve equilibrium.
d) CONTINGENCY APPROACH: The
contingency approach focuses on applying management principles and processes as
dictated by the unique characteristics of each situation. It emphasizes that
there is no one best way to manage and that it depends on various situational
factors, such as the external environment, technology, organisational
characteristics, characteristics of the manager, and characteristics of the
subordinates. Contingency theorists often implicitly or explicitly criticize
the classical approach for its emphasis on the universality of management
principles; however, most classical writers recognized the need to consider aspects
of the situation when applying management principles.
Distinction
between classical neoclassical approaches:
|
Basis
|
Classical Approach
|
Neo Classical
Approach
|
|
a) Focus
|
Funcitons and economic demand of worker
|
Emotion and human qualities of workers
|
|
b) Structure
|
Impersonal and mechanistic
|
Social system
|
|
c) Application
|
Autocratic amanagement and strict rule
|
Democratic process
|
|
d) Emphasize
|
Discipline and rationality
|
Personal security and social demand
|
|
e) Work Goal of worker
|
Maximum remuneration and reward
|
Attainment of organisation goal
|
|
f) Concept about men
|
Economic being
|
Social being
|
|
g) Content
|
Scientific management, administrative management and bureaucratic
management
|
Human relation movement and organisational behaviour
|
|
h) Relation
|
Formal
|
Informal
|
|
i) Nature
|
Mechanistic
|
Organisitic
|
2. (a) Define the
term “span of management”. How would you determine the optimum span in a given
situation? 6+10=16
Ans:
SPAN OF MANAGEMENT: In the
words of Spriegal, "Span of control means the number of people reporting
directly to an authority. The principle of span of control implies that no
single executive should have more people looking to him for guidance and
leadership than he can reasonably be expected to serve. The span of supervision
is also known as span of control, span of management, span of responsibility,
span of authority and span of direction.
Factors
influencing the span of Management
There
are number of factors that influence or determine the span of Management in a
particular organisation, the most important of these are as follows:
a)
The
capacity and ability of the executive: The characteristics and abilities
such as leadership, administrative capabilities; ability to communicate, to
judge, to listen, to guide and inspire, physical vigour, etc. differ from
person to person. A person having better abilities can manage effectively a
large number of subordinates as compared to the one who has lesser
capabilities.
b)
Competence
and training of subordinates: Subordinates who are skilled, efficient,
knowledgeable, trained and competent require less supervision, and therefore,
the supervisor may have a wider span in such cases as compared to inexperienced
and untrained subordinates who requires greater supervision.
c)
Nature of
Work: Nature and importance of work to be supervised is another factor
that influences the span of supervision. The work involving routine,
repetitive, unskilled and standardized operations will not call much attention
and time on the part of the supervisor.
d)
Time
available for supervision: The capacity of a person to supervise and
control a large number of persons is also limited on account of time available
at his disposal to supervise them. The span of control would be generally
narrow at the higher level of management because top manager have to spend
their major time on planning, organising, directing and controlling and the
time available at their disposal for supervision will be less.
e)
Degree of
Decentralization and Extent of Delegation: If a manager clearly delegates
authority to undertake a well-defined task, a well trained subordinate can do
it with a minimum of supervisor's time and attention.
f)
Effectiveness
of communication system: Faulty communication puts a heavy burden on
manager's time and reduces the span of control.
g)
Quality of
Planning: Effective planning helps to reduce frequent calls on the superior
for explanation, instructions and guidance and thereby saves in time available
at the disposal of the superior enabling him to have a wider span.
h)
Degree of
Physical Dispersion: If all persons to be supervised are located
at the same place and within the direct supervision of the manager, he can
supervise relatively more people as compared to the one who has to supervise
people located at different places.
i)
Assistance
of Experts: the span of supervision may be wide where the services of experts
are available to the subordinate on various aspects of work. In case such
services are not provided in the organisation, the supervisor has to spend a
lot of time in providing assistance to the workers himself and a such the span
of control would be narrow.
Type
of span of supervision: Broadly speaking there are two types, of span
of supervision:
(a) Wider Span of Supervision: In this
type of span, the supervisor controls and guides the activities of subordinates
directly under his control. Wider span or supervision is favoured where workers
are competent and trained.
(b) Narrow
Span of Supervision: under this type of supervision, there are many levels and
more supervisors are required to perform the job of guidance and control for
different activities. It increases the efficiency of supervision but the cost
of supervision is very high as compared to wider span of supervision. This type
of supervision is favored at higher levels of management where all the other
activities of planning, organising, directing, and controlling are also to be
performed. But more the levels of supervision, more difficult are the task of
coordinating the activities of various groups of people.
Or
(b) Write short
notes on: 8+8=16
1) Advantages of decentralisation:
Ans: The main advantages of
decentralization are as discussed below:
1)
It reduces the burden of top management so that
he can concentrate on other important functions like planning control etc.
2)
It makes growth and diversification easy. Under decentralization each product line is
treated as a separate division, hence it can respond quickly to the changes in
demands of its special market.
3)
It enables the organization to survive and grow
under the conditions of keen competition.
4)
It helps in promoting development of
executives. Decentralization provides
opportunity to subordinate managers to take decision and take initiative so as
to acquire leadership qualities.
Decentralization tends to promote autonomy, initiative and creativity on
the part of subordinates. It helps the
organization to maintain stability and continuity effectively.
5)
It improves motivation and morale of
subordinates. As opportunity to take
decisions is given to them, it helps in developing belongingness and satisfies
the need of power, prestige, status and independence. When motivation and morale improves,
productivity increases and healthy working relationship also develops. It helps in maximum utilization of talents of
lower levels in the organization.
6)
It results in effective supervision because
lower level managers are given complete authority to make changes in work
assignment, to take disciplinary action, to recommend promotions and even to
change production schedule.
7)
Decentralization is useful in promoting
effective control through comparative evaluation of performance and clear-cut
accountability of results.
8)
It promotes democratic management and
flexibility of operations. Necessary
changes can be quickly made without disturbing the organizational structure.
9)
It helps in saving time as all the paper work
relating to the basic operations of business can be significantly reduced, work
can be completed early without wasting time.
2) Guidelines for effective delegation:
Ans: Basic Principles of
Delegation: The followings are some of the important
principles of delegation of authority:
(a)
Authority should commensurate with responsibility- It is not correct to say
that authority should be equal to responsibility. Authority is the power to
carryout an assignment and responsibility is the obligation to accomplish them.
It is logical to say that authority needed to do a job should correspond to the
responsibility. Though equalisation of authority and responsibility is not
possible, authority should be co-extensive or commensurate with responsibility.
(b)
Responsibility cannot be delegated— When authority is delegated to a
subordinate by an executive, the executive does not pass on the responsibility
for it. He is still accountable for it to his immediate superior. As the
responsibility to the superior is absolute, it is also termed as the principles
of absolute responsibility.
(c)
Dual subordination should be avoided— There is a saying that a man can-not
serve two masters in the same way. Every subordinate in the organization must
know who delegates authority to him and to whom the matters beyond his
authority will be referred. The executive should ensure that authority passes
through the formal chain of command and the line supervisors are not bypassed.
The
most important step in the organization of office work is to assign definite
duties and responsibility to each executive. This should be accompanied by
delegation of authority. Authority flows downward as it implies the right to
acquire action of others. Responsibility flows upward because a person is
accountable to another in the higher rank.
7
important Principles of Delegation formulated by Koontz and O'Donnell: Koontz
and O'Donnell give the following principles as guides to delegation of
authority.
1.
Principle of Delegation by Results Expected: Authority
is delegated to achieve the enterprise objectives. 'Delegation by results
expected implies that goals have been set and plans made, that these are
communicated and understood, and that jobs have been set up to fit in with
them'.
2.
Principle of Functional Definition: The functions undertaken by managers
are clearly explained. 'The more a position or a department has clear
definitions of results expected, activities to be undertaken, organisation,
authority delegated, and authority and informational relationships with other
positions, the more adequately individuals responsible can contribute toward
accomplishing enterprise objectives'.
3.
Scalar Principles: This refers to the chain of authority
relationships from superior to subordinate throughout the organisation. 'As the
scalar principle indicates, this clearer thin line is from the top of the
bottom of the organisation structure, the better delegation and orderly
decision making are facilitated'.
4.
Authority Level Principles: Each manager can take his own
decision within his authority and only matters not within his authority must be
referred to his superior.
5.
Principle of Unity of Command: This means that a subordinate is
answerable to only one boss. 'The more completely an individual has a
relationship to a single superior, the less the problem of conflict in
instructions and the greater the feeling of personal responsibility for
results'.
6.
Principle of Absoluteness of Responsibility: The
responsibility of the subordinate to his superior for the assigned
responsibility is absolute.
7.
Principle of Parity of Authority and Stability: This
principle states that authority should correspond to the responsibility. 'The
responsibility for action cannot be greater than that implied by a authority
delegated, nor can it be less'.
3. (a) Bring out the role of
groups in an organisation. Substantiate the claims that group task influences
group performance and satisfaction. 8+8=16
Or
(b) Define
Perception. Explain the steps in the perceptual process. 6+10=16
Ans: Perception
Perception
is an important mediating cognitive process. Through this complex process,
people make interpretations of the stimulus or situation they are faced with.
Both selectivity and organization go 'into perceptual, interpretations.
Externally, selectivity is affected by intensity, size, contrast, repetition,
motion and novelty and familiarity. Internally, perceptual selectivity is
influenced by the individual's motivation, learning and personality. After the
selective process filters the stimulus situation, the incoming information is
organized into a meaningful whole.
Individual
differences and uniqueness are largely the result of the cognitive processes.
Although there arc a number of cognitive processes, it is generally recognized
that the perceptual process is a very important one. It is a process that takes
place between the situation and the behaviour and is most relevant to the study
of organizational behaviour. For example, the observation that a department
head and a subordinate may react quite differently to the same top management
directive can be better understood and explained by the perceptual process.
In
the process of perception, people receive many different kinds of information through
all five senses, assimilate them and then interpret them. Different people
perceive the same information differently.
Perception
plays a key role in determining individual behaviour in organizations.
Organizations send messages in a variety of forms to their members regarding
what they are expected to do and not to do. In spite of organizations sending
clear messages, those messages are subject to distortion in the process of
being perceived by organizational members. Hence, managers need to have a general
understanding of the basic perceptual process.
Basic Perceptual Process
Perception
is influenced by characteristics of the object being perceived, by the
characteristics of the person and by the situational processes.
a)
Characteristics of the
object include contrast, intensity, movement, repetition
and novelty.
b)
Characteristics of the person include
attitude, self-concept and personality.
The
details of a particular situation affect the way a person perceives an object;
the same person may perceive the same object very differently in different
situations. The processes through which a person's perceptions are altered by
the situation include selection, organization, attribution, projection,
stereotyping process, and the halo effect process. Among these, selective
perception and stereotyping are particularly relevant to organizations.
a)
Selective
Perception: Selective perception is the process of screening out
information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. For
example, a manager has a very positive attitude about a particular worker and
one day he notices that the worker seems to be goofing up. Selective perception
may make the manager to quickly disregard what he observed. For example, a
manager who has formed a very negative attitude about a particular worker and
he happens to observe a high performance from the same worker. In this case
influenced by the selective perception process he too will disregard it. In one
sense, selective perception is beneficial because it allows us to disregard
minor bits of information. But if selective perception causes managers to
ignore important information, it can become quite detrimental.
b)
Stereotyping:
Stereotyping is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of
a single attribute. Perceptions based on stereotypes about people's sex exist
more or less in all work places. Typically, these perceptions lead to the
belief that an individual's sex determines which tasks he or she will be able
to perform. For example, if a woman is sitting behind the table in the office,
she will be very often, perceived as a clerk and not an executive at first. But
it would induce holding an exactly opposite assumption about a man.
Stereotyping consists of three steps: identifying categories of people (like
women, politician), associating certain characteristics with those categories
(like passivity, dishonesty respectively) and then assuming that any one who
fits a certain category must have those characteristics. For example, if dishonesty
is associated with politicians, we are likely to assume that all politicians
are dishonest.
4. (a) What is the
essence of Vroom’s Expectancy model of motivation? What are its merits and
limitations? 8+8=16
Ans: Victor Vroom made an
important contribution to the understanding of the concept of motivation and
the decision process that people use to determine how much effort they will
expend on their jobs. He said that a person’s motivation towards an action at
any time would be determined by an individual’s perception that a certain type
of action would lead to a specific outcome and his personal preference for this
outcome. This model is based on the belief that motivation is determined by the
nature of the reward expect to get an a result of their job performance. There
are three variable in Vroom’s model given in the form of an equation. Since the
model is a multiplier, all the three variable must have high positive value to
imply motivated performance choices. If any of the variable is zero the probability
of motivated performance tends to be zero.
MOTIVATION = VALENCE X EXPECTANCY X
INSTRUMENTALITY
All these
three variable are explained as follows:
1)
Valence:
Valence means the attraction (or repulsion) of an outcome to the individual.
Whenever an individual has preference for a reward valence is the strength of
that preference.
2)
Expectancy:
Expectancy is also referred to as the Effort-Performance Probability. It refers
to the extent to which the person believes his efforts will lead to the first
level outcome i.e. completion of the task.
3)
Instrumentality
(Performance-Reward Probability): Instrumentality refers to the
probabilities attached by the individual to each possible performance-outcome
alternative just as the individual previously assigned probabilities to various
levels of effort leading to different levels of performance (expectancy).
The plus
points of this theory are:
a)
The expectancy model is highly useful in
understanding organizational behaviour. It can improve the relationship between
the individual and the organizational goals. This model explains how
individuals’ goals influence his efforts and like need-based models reveal that
individual behaviour is goal oriented.
b)
The expectancy theory is a cognitive theory,
which values human dignity. Individuals are considered rational human beings
who can anticipate their future on the basis of their beliefs and expectations.
c)
This theory helps the managers in looking beyond
what Maslow and Herzberg implied. According to him motivation does not mean
satisfying the unsatisfied needs. The managers must make it possible for an
employee to see that effort can result in appropriate need satisfying rewards.
Despite
these plus points, there are some drawbacks of Vroom’s expectancy model as
given below:
a)
Vroom’s theory is difficult to research and
apply in practice. This is evident by the fact that there have been a very few
research studies designed specifically to test Vroom’s theory.
b)
This theory assumes man to be a rational human
being who makes all the decisions consciously. But there are numerous instances
where decision are taken with no conscious thought. This is particularly true
for routine jobs.
c)
Although, it is an important theory of
motivation but it is quite complex. Many managers, in actual organizational
situations, do not have the time or sources to use a complex system on the job.
Or
(b) Point out in brief some
behavioural implications of control. Suggest some suitable measures to minimize
behavioural dysfunctions of control. 16
5. (a) What is effectiveness?
What are the different approaches which have been developed to study
organisational effectiveness? 6+10=16
Or
(b) “Resistance to change is a
normal part of process of change.” Discuss what technique would you use in
overcoming such resistance. 16
***
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