IGNOU B.Com Solved Question Paper
Term-End Examination (June,
2013)
ELECTIVE COURSE:
COMMERCE
ECO-003: MANAGEMENT
THEORY
Time: 2 hours (Maximum
Marks: 50)
(Weightage: 70%)
Note: Attempt any five
questions.
All questions carry
equal marks.
1. (a) Distinguish between
'management' and 'administration'.
5+5
Ans:
Difference between management and administration
|
Basis |
Management |
Administration |
|
1.
Nature |
It
is a doing function i.e. implementation of plans. |
It
is thinking functions i.e., determination of objectives and policies. |
|
2.
Scope |
Management
works within framework of administration. |
Administration
is a wider term than management. |
|
3.
Status |
Managers
may be employees. |
It
consists of owners of an enterprise. |
|
4.
Level of authority |
It
is a lower level management function. |
It
is a top management functions. |
|
5.
Skills |
Technical
and human skills are required. |
Conceptual
and human skills required. |
(b) Explain briefly the
modern (systems) approach to management.
Ans: SYSTEMS APPROACH: The systems approach focuses on understanding the organisation as an open system that transforms inputs into outputs. The systems approach began to have a strong impact on management thought in the 1960s as a way of thinking about managing techniques that would allow managers to relate different specialties and parts of the company to one another, as well as to external environmental factors. The systems approach focuses on the organisation as a whole, its interaction with the environment, and its need to achieve equilibrium.
In
simple words, a system may be defined as a set a interrelated and
interdependent parts forming an organized unit or entity. These parts are known
as sub-systems which interact with each other and are subject to change. They
are interrelated as well as interdependent. Hence, changes in any sub-system
lead to changes in others. Any working organisation may be said to have three
sub-systems as follows:
1.
Technical Sub-System It represents the formal relationships among
the members of an organisation.
2.
Social Sub-System: It provides social satisfaction to members
through informal group relations.
3.
Power Sub-System: It reflects the exercise of power or
influence by individuals and groups.
Critical
Evaluation of system approach of management
Systems
theory has made the following advantages
1. It provides
a manager a way of thinking about the job he has to managed and finds an
opportunity to him for looking it the organization as a whole and for achieving
overall effectiveness.
2. It provides main
focus to organizational efforts towards a direction which people should move.
3. It draws
attention of managers to an important factor and that is the environment in
which an organization works. The interaction with the environment is dynamic.
4. It includes
within it focus both micro and macro aspects of the organizations. Hence it
serves a multi-level and multi-dimensional approach.
5. It implies
that the modern manager should have analytical orientation should be expert in
motivating to achieve goals and open mandate to receive and respect new ideas,
i.e. creativity and innovation.
6. It also
implies that management education must seek to develop the ability to work with
and motivate others.
7. The feed back
mechanism provides and opportunity to rearrange organizations part according to
the change in the environment.
The
system theories have been criticized on the following grounds.
1. Systems theory is
not a complete explanation of the whole organizational system. It does not
explain how the sub-system of the specific organization is uniquely related in
a given environment.
2. The conceptional
framework for understanding organization provided by system theory is too
abstract.
3. It does not
really offer any new thing. Managers do understand interrelationship between
different parts and the influence of environment on organization and it
sub-systems.
2. Why is planning
considered important for an organization? What are its limitations? 5+5
Ans:
Importance and Advantages of Planning
Planning
is of vital importance in the managerial process. No enterprise can achieve its
objectives without systematic planning. “Planning is the heart of management”
The following points highlight the importance of planning function of
management:
a.
Planning
provides directions: By stating i n advance how work is to be
done, planning provide direction for action. If goals are well defined,
employees are aware of what the organisation has to do and what they must do to
achieve those goals. Departments and individuals in the organisation are able
to work in coordination. Planning keeps the organisation on the right
path. If there was no planning, employees would be working in different
directions and the organisation would not be able to achieve its goals efficiently.
b.
Planning
reduces the risks of uncertainty: Business enterprises operate in an
uncertain environment and face several types of risks. Planning enables these
enterprises to predict future events and prepare to face the unexpected events.
With the help of planning, managers can identify potential dangers and take
steps to overcome them. Thus, planning helps risk and uncertainty.
c.
Planning
facilitates decision-making: Decision-making involves searching for
various alternative courses of action, evaluating them and selecting the best
course of action. Under planning, targets are laid down. With the help of these
targets, managers can better evaluate alternative courses of action and select
the best alternative. Plans lay down in advance what is to be done
and how it is to be done. Therefore, decisions can be taken with greater
confidence.
d.
Planning
reduces overlapping and wasteful activities: Since planning ensures clarity in
thought and action, work is carried on smoothly without interruptions. There is
no confusion and misunderstanding. Useless and redundant activities are
minimized or eliminated. It is easier to detect inefficiencies and take
corrective measures to deal with them.
e.
Planning
promotes innovative ideas: Planning is thinking in advance and,
therefore, there is scope of finding better ideas and better methods and
procedures to reach the objectives/goals of the enterprise. This forces
managers to think differently about the future of the organisations from the
present. Thus, planning makes the managers innovative and creative.
f.
Planning
establishes standards for controlling: Planning provides the goals or
standards against which the actual performance can be measured and evaluated. A
comparison of actual performance with the standards helps to identify the deviations
and to take corrective action. Planning makes control meaningful and effective. ‘Control
is blind without planning.” Thus,
planning provides the basis of control.
Limitations
of Planning
Planning
is essential for a business organisation. It is difficult to manage operations
without formal planning. It is important for the organisation to move towards
achieving goals. But often things to not always go according to plan.
Unforeseen events and changes, rise in costs and prices, environmental changes,
government interventions, legal regulations, all affect our business plans.
Plans then need to be modified. Therefore, planning might fail due to the
following limitations:
a.
Planning
does not work in dynamic environment: The business environment is dynamic,
nothing is constant. The environment consists of a number of dimensions—
economic, political, technological, legal and social dimensions. The
organisation has to constantly adapt itself to the changes in business
environment. However, it is not always possible to accurately assess future
trends in the environment.
i.
Competition in the market can upset financial
plans.
ii.
Sales targets have to be revised and according
is cash budgets also need to be modified since then are based on sales figures.
Thus, planning cannot foresee everything and thus
these are obstacles to effective planning.
b.
Planning
is a time consuming process: Planning is a time consuming process. It
requires collection of information, its analysis and interpretation. These
activities may take considerable time. Sometimes plans to be drawn up take so
much of time that there is not much time left for implementation of plans.
c.
Planning
involves huge costs: Planning is an expensive process in terms of
money. When plans are drawn up, huge costs are involved in the formulation of
plans. If the costs are not justified by the benefits derived from the plan, it
may have adverse effect on the enterprise. There are a number of incidental
costs as well, like expenses on Board’s meetings, discussions with professional
experts and preliminary investigations to find out the Viability of the plan.
d.
Planning
creates rigidity: Planning leads to rigid mode of functioning
for managers. This has adverse effect on the initiative to be taken by them.
e.
Planning
does not guarantee success: The success of an enterprise is possible only
when plans are Properly drawn up implemental. Managers have a tendency to rely
on previously tried and tested successful plans. But it is not always true that
a plan which has worked before, will work effectively again.
f.
Planning
reduces creativity: Planning is an activity which is done by top
management. Usually the rest of the
organisation just implements these plans. As a consequence, middle management
and other decision makers are neither allowed to deviate from plans nor are
they permitted to act on their own. They only carry out orders.
3. Why are policies
regarded as standing plans? Outline uses of policies to an organisation. 4+6
Ans: Policies: Policy can be defined as
organisation’s general response to a particular problem. In simple words, it is
the organisation’s own way of handling the problems. Example: Different business firms may follow different sales
policies as stated below: “We don’t
sell on credit”; “It is our policy to deal with wholesalers only.”
A policy is a standing plan which provides
answers to recurring problems of similar nature. It provides answers/guidelines
to the members of an organisation for deciding the future course of action. A
policy provides and explains what a member should do rather than what he is
doing. Polices are models of thought and principles underlying the activities
of an organisation.
Uses of Policies in an organisation:
1.
A policy provides guidelines to employee for
taking decisions in the framework of a policy. There will be no need of
consultation when decisions are taken as per the guidelines of policy.
2.
Delegation of powers to subordinates will be
easy if policies are properly framed.
Supervisors will be sure that the subordinates will do anything beyond
the power so delegated.
3.
Proper policy formation helps in management in
well balanced co-ordination amongst various departments of the organisation. It
gives guidelines for taking decisions.
4.
The decision taken by different person in
similar situation will have the same impact. All decision makers know the
limits of their decisions and they will not go beyond the policy framework.
4. What do you understand
by 'Delegation of Authority'? Discuss the principles of delegation. 3+7
Ans: In every organisation managers
are assigned lot of work and manager alone cannot perform all the work. So, he
divides the work among different individuals working under his according to
their qualification and gets the work done from them. After passing the
responsibilities the manager also shares some of his authority with his
subordinates. To make sure that his subordinates perform all works effectively
and efficiently the manager creates accountability and this whole process is
known as delegation of authority.
Principles of Delegation of Authority:
a)
Principle
of Balance between Authority and responsibility: One of
the most principle of delegation of authority is the equality between assigned
task and power to do the work. If it is not done, there can be improper use of
authority and mismanagement of task by the subordinates.
b)
Principle
of absoluteness of accountability: According to this principle,
accountability is absolute. It can never be passed or delegated. After creating
accountability on subordinates, the superiors also remain accountable.
c)
Principles
of absoluteness of responsibility: Authority can be delegated but
responsibility cannot be delegated. The superiors who delegates authority
himself responsible for his seniors.
d)
Principle
of unity of command: According to this principle, subordinates
must get instructions from one superior only. Subordinates should take task
from one superior and should be accountable towards the superior level of
operation.
e)
Principle
of scalar chain: Authority flows from top to bottom. So that the scalar chain is
the basis on which the relation between superiors and subordinates are based.
5. Explain the
McGregor's theory of motivation and state its assumptions. 5+5
Ans: McGregor’s Theory X and Y
Doughlas
McGregor introduced these two theories i.e., Theory X and Theory Y, based on
two distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes, two
pairs of assumptions about human beings which he thought were implied by the
actions of the mangers. Theory X deals with one extreme, based on one set of
assumptions and Theory y deals with another extreme based on another set of
assumptions. These theories are not based on any research, but according to
McGregor, these are intuitive deduction.
Theory
X:
-This theory is based on the
traditional approach to human behavior. The assumptions generally, held by the
managers in their theory are: -
a) The
average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever
possible
b) A the
employee are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment
to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent
c) Average
employee will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever
possible, because they have relatively little ambition.
Theory
y:
-This approach assumes that management
by direction and control is questionable method for motivating such people
whose physiological and social needs have been satisfied and whose social;
esteem and self actualization needs are becoming more important. For such
people, Theory Y seems to be applicable, which is the contrast of Theory X.
This theory makes the following assumptions about people:
a)
The average human
being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural or
enjoyable as rest or play
b)
Employees will
exercise self direction and self control in the attainment of the objectives to
which they are committed
c)
Given proper working
conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek responsibility
d)
Commitment to
objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement
e)
All the people are
capable of making innovative and creative decision and the decision making is
not the sole province of the people in management position.
6. Explain clearly the meaning of the term ‘Morale’. Discuss the
factors that influence the morale of employees in an organization. 3+7 (Out of Syllabus)
7. (a) How shall you
make the ‘communication effective in your organization ? 5+5
Ans: Meaning of Effective
Communication
Communication becomes
effective when the receiver understands the meaning of the message as the
sender intends. All communication attempts may not be effective. Certain
barriers and problems may cause
communication failure. When information is received timely, exact meaning of
the message is understood and proper
feedback is given, communication
becomes effective. Consequently, to
make an effective communication, the following qualities of communication are
needed:
1.
Timely receiving.
2.
Understanding exact meaning of the message.
3.
Proper feedback is given by the receiver to the sender.
R.W. Griffin mentioned about Effective Communication, "Effective communication is the
process of sending a message in such a way that the message received is as
close in meaning as possible to the message intended."
How Communication is
made effective?
Communication becomes
effective when the receiver understands the meaning of the message as the
sender intends. To make
communication effective, the following rules should be involved:
1. Specific Purpose: The sender must be clear
about the specific purpose that he wants to communicate to the receiver.
2. Study the Listener: The sender must study the
interest and attitude of the receiver to make communication
effective more.
3. Organization of Idea or Thought: The communicator must make up
a plan about how he is going to communicate. He must organize his thoughts and
ideas in advance.
4. Proper Transmission of Message: The message must be
transmitted in such a way that it is accepted by the listener or reader with
interest.
5. Personal Touch: The personal element is the
keynote of communication. Sender's sincerity & sympathy influence the
listener a lot.
6. Mutual Understanding: A mutual understanding should
be established between the sender and receiver of the message.
7. Awareness of the Need for Effective Communication: The sender and receiver of
communication must be aware to make communication meaningful.
8. Provision for Feedback: When message is sent to the
receiver, there must be a feedback to the sender. Two way communications
creates the best possible feedback.
9. Selection of a Good Channel: The sender of message must
select an effective and formal
channel to communicate with the
receiver.
10. Active Listening: This provides proper feedback
to the sender to complete the communication process.
(b) State the barriers
you, as a manager of a large organization, may face in making the communication
effective.
Ans: Types of Barriers in communication: The barriers to communication in an
organization may be broadly categorized into following groups:
1.
Physical barriers (RECEIVER’S ORIENTED)
2.
Socio- psychological or personal barriers (RECEIVER’S ORIENTED)
3.
Organizational barriers (SENDER’S ORIENTED)
4.
Semantic barriers (SENDER’S ORIENTED)
5.
Mechanical barriers (SENDER’S ORIENTED)
However,
such a classification does not suggest that these are mutually exclusive.
Rather, it is helpful in understanding the nature of communication barriers.
1.
Physical Barriers: There are the
environmental factors that also obstruct or reduces the sending and receiving
of communication, such as physical distance distracting noises and other
interferences difficulty arises in communicating a message, when the physical
distance increases:-
Noise:
Noise is first and foremost barrier to effective communication. Noise may be
caused by machines, equipment, communication device, disturbances in the time
of transmission etc. noise also encompasses many other factors such as the
sender may use ambiguous or confusing signal. The receiver may misinterpret the
message. Thus communication is likely to be spoilt due to noise.
Time
and distance: Time and distance also acts as a barrier in smooth flow of
communication. Distance between the sender and receiver acts as a hurdle.
Although this barrier can be overcome by technology but still in case of
breakdown, this exists. Different timing of shifts at workplace also act as
barriers in imparting on vital information.
2. Socio-psychological or personal Barriers:
There are certain socio psychological factors which restrict the free flow of
communication. They are the attitude and opinions, status consciousness, ones
relations with fellow workers, seniors, and junior’s etc. family background.
These restrict participative communication:
I.
Motives, attitudes, judgments, emotions, and social values of people from the
part of the personal barriers. Psychological distance is also developed with
this.
II.
Individual Differences: There are differences in the motives, attitudes and
sentiments of the people. So this causes problems in encoding and decoding
other’s sentiments, attitudes and motives.
III.
Differences in interest: The interest of people also differs. A problem may be
important for one person but may not carry weight for another. The ideas,
question, attitudes, feelings etc of other party may represent an obstacle to
one’s own personal goal.
IV.
Division of People: Communication is ideas and viewpoint also gets affected by
the division of people into classes, castes and communities.
V.
Difference of viewpoints: Communication suffers when there are differences in
view point of the different people.
VI.
Lack of planning: Good communication never happens but has to be planned. When
people take it lightly and communicate without planning it turns into
miscommunication or mal communication.
VII.
Cultural barriers: Due to difference in the cultural background the same word,
phrases, symbols, actions etc. may mean different to different group of people.
Mis understanding may take place due to this.
3. Organizational Barriers: Organisational
barriers arise due to defects in the organization structure and the
communication system of an organization:
I.
Hierarchical distance: Downward communication promotes hierarchical distance.
The chances of information being filtered are more at this structure, because
there are several layers. Information received from the top may not reach at
bottom in the same shape. The information gets coloured which brings
hierarchical distance.
II.
Diversion: Diversion of information is also one of the causes which brings
barrier to communication process. For example sometimes a manager diverts the
information meant for one person or group to another.
III.
Colouring: Information are also coloured by the manager intentionally with a
view to twist the situation in their favour. For example, an office may quote
his subordinate wrongly, to spoil his career or his chance of promotion or his
image in the eyes of the boss.
IV.
Status barriers: Status is a barrier of communication in a formal organization.
Organizational interaction and communication are influenced by the status and
the expectations.
V.
Goal conflicts: Goal conflict acts as communication reducers. Different goal
lead to bifurcation of interest. Due to this communication suffers.
4.
Semantic Barriers: Semantic means
the relationships of signs of their reference. Semantic barrier arises from the
disadvantages of the symbolic system. Symbols have got number of meaning and
one has to choose any one of them according to the requirement of
communication. Symbol or the language is the most important tool of
communication which has to be used very carefully:-
I.
Words with different meaning: Some words convey more than one meaning. When the
receiver assigns a different meaning to a word than what the sender intended,
there occurs miscommunication.
II.
Denotation and connotation: Words have two types of meaning = Denotation and
connotation. Denotation is the literal meaning of the words connotation are the
suggestive meaning of the words. Connotation is the suggestive meanings of the
words. Connotation may be positive or negative.
III.
Offensive style of communication: Badly expressed messages lose their impact.
Offensive style of communication leads to communication breakdown causing loss
of time and money.
IV.
Wrong assumptions: Communication should not be based on assumption as it may
lead to wrong interpretation. All possible efforts should be made to clarify
assumptions.
V.
Selective perception: many a time the message is decoded by the receiver in a
way which may be selective. In other words most of the receivers protect their
own interest and expectations leading to a particular type of feedback which
becomes a communication problem.
5.
Mechanical Barriers: Mechanical
barriers include inadequate arrangement for transmission of news, facts and
figures. Example poor office layout and defective procedure and the use of
wrong media led to poor communication.
I.
Information overload: Excess of communication is called information overload.
Brevity is the soul of communication. The receiver cannot comprehend and absorb
beyond his mental capacity. His mind will remain closed for the excess part of
the communication. Therefore one should be brief and to the point.
II.
Loss of transmission: When messages are transmitted from person to person they
are filtered. In other words they are diluted and distorted on the way. In oral
communication about 30% of the information is lost in each transmission.
8. Explain clearly the
meaning of the term 'Budgetary Control'. Describe the characteristics of
'Budgetary Control'. 5+5
Ans: Budgetary control is the process of preparation of budgets for
various activities and comparing the budgeted figures for arriving at
deviations if any, which are to be eliminated in future. Thus budget is a means
and budgetary control is the end result. Budgetary control is a continuous
process which helps in planning and coordination. It also provides a method of
control.
According to Brown and Howard “Budgetary
control is a system of coordinating costs which includes the preparation of
budgets, coordinating the work of departments and establishing
responsibilities, comparing the actual performance with the budgeted and acting
upon results to achieve maximum profitability”.
Features
of Budgetary Control:
A budgetary control system can be defined as
the establishment of budgets relating to the responsibilities of executives to
the requirements of a policy, and the continuous comparison of actual with
budgeted results either to secure by individual action the objective of that
policy or to provide a base for its revision.
The salient features of such a system are the
following:
(a) Objectives: Determining the objectives to be
achieved, over the budget period, and the policy or policies that might be
adopted for the achievement of these ends.
(b) Activities: Determining the variety of
activities that should be undertaken for the achievement of the objectives.
(c) Plans: Drawing up a plan or a scheme of
operation in respect of each class of activity in physical as well as monetary
terms for the full budget period and its part.
(d) Performance evaluation: Laying out a system
of comparison of actual performance by each person, section or department with
the relevant budget arid determination of causes for the discrepancies, if any.
(e) Control Action: Ensuring that corrective action
will be taken where the plan is not being achieved
and, if that is not possible, for the revision of the plan.
9. Write short notes on
any two of the following: 5+5
(a) Relationship between Authority and
Responsibility
Ans: Difference Between Authority and
Responsibility
|
Basis |
Authority |
Responsibility |
|
1.
Meaning 2.
Origin 3.
Flow 4.
Delegation 5.
Period 6.
Nature 7.
Termination |
a)
It is a legal right to command and control
subordinates. b)
It arises either from a formal contract or
legal provision. c)
Authority always flows downward. d)
Authority can be delegated and shared. e)
It may continue. It has longer period than
responsibility. f)
It is power. g)
Authority can be terminated by giving a
notice. |
a)
It is the obligation of a sub-ordinate to
perform the work assigned by his superior. b)
It arises from a superior-subordinate
relationship. c)
Responsibility always flows upward. d)
Responsibility can be assigned but not
delegated. e)
It comes to an end o the completion of the
task. f)
It is duty. g)
It cannot be terminated so easily. |
(b) Qualities of a successful leader
Ans: Qualities of a Good Leader
1.
Patience: Patience
is the capacity to face difficult situations, hardships or inconvenience
without making a single complaint. A good leader must show patience while
waiting for expected results, facing difficult situations and taking important
decisions. He must avoid taking hasty decisions and actions.
2.
Good Personality: A good personality is a combination of
physical, mental and social qualities. Good personality helps a leader to
influence his followers. Attractive physique and good manners add an advantage
to the leader's personality.
3.
Self-confidence: A good leader must have self
confidence. This quality is necessary for facing challenging situations and for
solving problems easily and effectively.
4.
Human Skills: A good leader must have essential
social and human skills. That is, he must understand people. This quality is
necessary for dealing with different types of persons and social groups.
5. Judgment skills: A good leader should be able to examine problems in
right perspective. His judgment and decision making abilities should be
superior to others. He should be able to form opinions and judge based on facts
and not be prejudiced
6. Communication skills: A good leader should be able to communicate the
goals and procedures of the organisation clearly, precisely and effectively to
the subordinates. Only then will it be possible for him to convince, persuade
and stimulate subordinates to action.
7. Listening skills: People tend to avoid a leader who does not listen.
Hence a good leader in one who can listen to other peoples problems. He should
be able to create a culture whereby people can be frank with him and give him
information and also give him feedback about himself, which can help him to
improve himself.
(c) Managerial functions
Ans: Functions/Elements of Management
According
to Henry Fayol, in every organisation manager perform certain functions to
achieve results. These functions are broadly classified under five categories:-
a)
Planning:
Planning is a process of making decision about future. It provides direction to
enterprise activities. Its work is to decide in advance what is to be done,
when and where it is to be done, how it is to be done and by whom. The main
functions of planning are Set up goals, Forecasting, Search for alternatives
source of action and Budgeting.
b)
Organising: It is
concerned with the arrangement of an organisation’s resources – people,
material, technology and finances in order to achieve enterprise objective. The
main functions of organising are Job design, Job specification and Authority
and responsibility.
c)
Staffing:
Staffing is the function of employing suitable personas for the enterprise. It
may be defined as an activity where people are recruited, selected, trained,
developed, motivated and compensated for manning various positions.
d)
Directing:
According to Dale, direction is telling people what to do and seeing that they
do it to the best of their ability. Directing is a function of guiding and
supervising the activities of sub ordinates. The four main elements of
directing are:-
1. Leadership: It is a process of influencing
the action of a person or a group to attain desired objectives. The success of
an organisation depends upon the quality of leadership shown by its managers.
2. Motivation: It is the process of
stimulating people to take desired courses of action. It is to inspire,
encourage and impel people to take required action.
3. Communication: It is a way of reaching
other with ideas, facts, and thoughts. Effective communication is important in
organisation because managers Can achieve very little without it.
e)
Controlling: It
is the management function concerned with monitoring employee’s activities,
keeping the organisation on track towards its goals, and making corrections as
required. It include four things:
Ø
setting standard
of performance;
Ø
measuring actual
performance;
Ø
comparing actual
performance against the standard ;
Ø
taking corrective
actions to ensure goal accomplishment.
(d) Job description and
job specification
Ans: Job description:
Job
description is an organized, factual statement of the duties and
responsibilities of a specific job.
It should
tell what is to be done, how it is done, and why. It is a standard of function.
It defines the authorized content of the job. It contains : job title,
location, job summary, duties, machine, tools and equipments, materials used,
supervision given or received, working conditions, hazards etc.
Job specification: A statement of the
minimum acceptable human qualities necessary to perform a job properly. It is a
standard of personnel and designates the qualities required for acceptable
performance. A statement of human
qualifications necessary to do the job. Usually contains such items: education,
experience, training, judgement, initiative, physical effort, physical skills,
communication skills, emotional characteristics, sensory demands such as sight,
smell, hearing and many others depends upon the nature of job.
Post a Comment
Kindly give your valuable feedback to improve this website.